Imagine going to a party with thousands of people, where you can eat all sorts of delicious food. That’s exactly what happened in 879 B.C.E. when the Assyrian king Ashurnasirpal II threw a massive celebration. He had just finished building a grand palace in what is now Nimrud and wanted to celebrate in style. The party lasted for 10 days, and the menu included sheep, oxen, fruit, cheese, and honey. To remember this event, the king had the menu carved into a large stone tablet, making it one of the oldest menus ever found.
Fast forward to around 1100 C.E. in China during the Song Dynasty, where the first restaurants that resemble what we know today started popping up in cities like Kaifeng and Hangzhou. Unlike inns that served just one meal to everyone, these new restaurants offered a list of dishes to choose from. A writer from Hangzhou mentioned that there were about 600 different dishes available! They even had table service, singing waiters, and possibly a system to rate the quality of the food using flags.
When we think of fancy dining, French cuisine often comes to mind. However, restaurants weren’t always a part of French culture. In the 18th century, elaborate meals were mostly enjoyed in the homes of the wealthy. It wasn’t until the late 1700s that the first real restaurants appeared in France. The word “menu” itself comes from the Latin word “minutus,” meaning small and detailed, and it gained its current meaning in the early 19th century as restaurants became more popular.
In the 1830s, Delmonico’s in New York City became the first place where people could order individual items from a menu. However, not everyone was familiar with the French terms used on the menu. One visitor in 1831 ordered a “cornichon,” expecting a drink but received pickles instead! Menus from this time included a variety of meats and even some unusual dishes that might surprise us today.
Menus have evolved a lot over the years. Today, many restaurants use clever tricks to influence what we order. For example, leaving out the dollar sign can make us spend more, and placing expensive items next to cheaper ones can make the latter seem like a better deal.
In the past, children were not often welcome in restaurants, and when they were, they had to order from the same menu as adults. This changed with the National Prohibition Act of 1920, which led to the creation of children’s menus. The Waldorf-Astoria was one of the first to offer a children’s menu in 1921.
There were also “women’s menus” in fine-dining restaurants, which listed the same items as the regular menu but without prices. This was meant to let women order without worrying about cost, but it could lead to awkward situations. In 1980, a woman named Kathleen Bick challenged this practice, leading to changes in how menus were presented.
Some restaurants have secret menus with items not listed publicly. For instance, at Chipotle, you can ask for a Quesarito, and McDonald’s has a “Land, Sea, and Air Burger.” Starbucks baristas can also make custom drinks if you know the ingredients.
While menus can sometimes be used to influence spending or reinforce old-fashioned ideas, they have also made dining more accessible to everyone. So next time you’re choosing what to eat, remember how lucky you are to have so many options!
If you have ideas for future episodes of Food History, feel free to share them in the comments. Thanks for reading!
Imagine you are a chef in ancient times. Create a menu for a grand feast, like the one King Ashurnasirpal II hosted. Use your creativity to include dishes that might have been served, and present your menu on a decorated piece of paper or poster board. Share your menu with the class and explain your choices.
Design a modern menu for a fictional restaurant. Consider how you might use psychological tricks, like omitting dollar signs or strategically placing items, to influence customer choices. Present your menu to the class and discuss the strategies you used.
In groups, role-play a scene in a restaurant from a different historical period. Assign roles such as waiter, chef, and customer. Use historical context to guide your interactions and menu choices. Perform your scene for the class and discuss how dining experiences have evolved.
Research a secret menu item from a popular restaurant. Prepare a short presentation about its origin, ingredients, and popularity. If possible, create a visual or digital representation of the item to share with the class.
Participate in a class debate about the ethics of using psychological tricks in menu design. Divide into two groups, with one arguing in favor of these tactics and the other against. Use examples from modern menus to support your arguments.
In the year 879 B.C.E., the Assyrian king Ashurnasirpal II hosted a grand celebration. He had just completed a palace in the revitalized city of what is now Nimrud and decided to celebrate with thousands of guests. The massive banquet lasted 10 days, featuring an abundance of food and drink, including sheep, oxen, fruit, cheese, and honey. To commemorate the event, King Ashurnasirpal II had a description engraved on a large stone tablet called a stele. According to his account, 69,574 people attended—though this number may have been an exaggeration. The inscription also lists the food items served, making the Banquet Stele one of the world’s oldest surviving menus.
Hi, I’m Justin Dodd. Welcome to Food History.
The first people to use menus in a more modern sense may have been the Chinese. During the Song Dynasty around 1100 C.E., the first businesses resembling modern restaurants appeared in urban centers like Kaifeng and Hangzhou. Unlike inns, where guests were served a single meal, these restaurants provided patrons with a list of items to choose from. An account from a writer in Hangzhou at the time mentions approximately 600 dishes available at various dining establishments. Other innovations of the Song dining scene included table service, singing waiters, and possibly an early rating system, where restaurateurs displayed flags to indicate the quality of their offerings.
While many associate fine dining with French cuisine, restaurants were not always part of French culture. For most of the 18th century, elaborate meals were confined to the private homes of the upper class. The first true restaurants in France began to appear in the late 1700s. We also have France to thank for the word “menu,” derived from the Latin word “minutus,” which originally described something small and detailed. It wasn’t until the rise of restaurants in early 19th-century France that the word took on its current meaning.
Around the 1830s, Delmonico’s became New York City’s first establishment to allow diners to order individual items off a menu. One visitor in 1831 noted his confusion with the French terms, particularly when he ordered a cornichon, expecting a beverage but receiving pickles instead. An 1859 breakfast menu from New York’s Metropolitan Hotel featured various meat preparations, while the famous Parker House in Boston had a category dedicated to game meat. Other notable menu items from this period included unique dishes that may raise eyebrows today.
Menus have changed significantly over the past century, with many modern menus employing psychological strategies to influence customer behavior. For instance, omitting the dollar sign from prices can increase average spending, as can the strategic placement of high-priced items to make others seem more affordable.
Historically, children were rarely welcomed in restaurants, and when they were, they often had to order from the same menu as adults. This began to change with the National Prohibition Act of 1920, which led restaurants to create menus catering to younger diners. The Waldorf-Astoria was a pioneer in offering a children’s menu in 1921, featuring items like broiled lamb chops and flaked chicken over rice.
Women’s menus were also common in fine-dining establishments, listing the same items as the regular menu but omitting prices. This practice aimed to allow women to order freely without concern for costs, which could lead to awkward situations. In 1980, a woman named Kathleen Bick challenged this practice in a lawsuit, which ultimately led to changes in how restaurants approached gendered menus.
Some restaurants still use “blind” menus today, but the criteria for who receives them are supposed to depend on the reservation holder, not the diners’ gender.
Many restaurants also have secret menus alongside their advertised items. For example, at Chipotle, you can request a Quesarito, and McDonald’s offers a “Land, Sea, and Air Burger.” Starbucks baristas can create custom drinks if you know the ingredients.
While menus can sometimes reinforce outdated norms or manipulate spending, they have also played a significant role in democratizing dining. So, the next time you spend time choosing your meal, appreciate the variety you have—it’s certainly better than the limited options of the past.
If you have ideas for future episodes of Food History, please share them in the comments below. Thank you for watching!
History – The study of past events, particularly in human affairs. – The history of agriculture shows how farming techniques have evolved over thousands of years.
Food – Any nutritious substance that people or animals eat or drink to maintain life and growth. – The food of ancient civilizations often included grains, fruits, and vegetables that were locally available.
Menus – A list of dishes available in a restaurant. – Historical menus from the 1800s reveal that many dishes were influenced by European cuisine.
Restaurants – Places where people pay to sit and eat meals that are cooked and served on the premises. – The first restaurants in Paris in the 18th century offered a new way of dining that became popular worldwide.
China – A country in East Asia with a rich history of culinary traditions. – The invention of noodles in China dates back over 4,000 years, making it a staple in Chinese cuisine.
Cuisine – A style or method of cooking, especially as characteristic of a particular country, region, or establishment. – Italian cuisine is famous for its use of fresh ingredients like tomatoes, garlic, and olive oil.
America – A continent comprising North, Central, and South America, known for its diverse cultures and cuisines. – Native American tribes had a significant influence on the food culture in early America, introducing crops like corn and squash.
Dining – The act of eating dinner, especially in a formal setting. – In medieval times, dining was a communal activity that often took place in large halls.
Children – Young human beings below the age of puberty or below the legal age of majority. – In the past, children often helped their families by working in the fields or preparing food at home.
Influence – The capacity to have an effect on the character, development, or behavior of someone or something. – The spice trade had a significant influence on European cuisine by introducing new flavors and ingredients.
