What rights do people have and where do they come from? Who gets to make decisions for others and on what authority? And how can we organize society to meet people’s needs? These questions challenged an entire nation during the upheaval of the French Revolution.
By the end of the 18th century, Europe had undergone a profound intellectual and cultural shift known as the Enlightenment. Philosophers and artists promoted reason and human freedom over tradition and religion. The rise of a middle class and printed materials encouraged political awareness, and the American Revolution had turned a former English colony into an independent republic.
Yet France, one of the largest and richest countries in Europe, was still governed by an ancient regime of three rigid social classes called Estates. The monarch King Louis XVI based his authority on divine right and granted special privileges to the First and Second Estates, the Catholic clergy, and the nobles. The Third Estate, middle-class merchants and craftsmen, as well as over 20 million peasants, had far less power and were the only ones who paid taxes, not just to the king, but to the other Estates as well.
But as France sank into debt due to its support of the American Revolution and its long-running war with England, change was needed. King Louis appointed finance minister Jacques Necker, who pushed for tax reforms and won public support by openly publishing the government’s finances. However, the king’s advisors strongly opposed these initiatives.
Desperate for a solution, the king called a meeting of the Estates-General, an assembly of representatives from the Three Estates, for the first time in 175 years. Although the Third Estate represented 98% of the French population, its vote was equal to each of the other Estates. And unsurprisingly, both of the upper classes favored keeping their privileges.
Realizing they couldn’t get fair representation, the Third Estate broke off, declared themselves the National Assembly, and pledged to draft a new constitution with or without the other Estates. King Louis ordered the First and Second Estates to meet with the National Assembly, but he also dismissed Necker, his popular finance minister. In response, thousands of outraged Parisians joined with sympathetic soldiers to storm the Bastille prison, a symbol of royal power and a large storehouse of weapons. The Revolution had begun.
As rebellion spread throughout the country, the feudal system was abolished. The Assembly’s Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen proclaimed a radical idea for the time – that individual rights and freedoms were fundamental to human nature and government existed only to protect them. Their privileges gone, many nobles fled abroad, begging foreign rulers to invade France and restore order. And while Louis remained as the figurehead of the constitutional monarchy, he feared for his future.
In 1791, he tried to flee the country but was caught. The attempted escape shattered people’s faith in the king. The royal family was arrested, and the king charged with treason. After a trial, the once-revered king was publicly beheaded, signaling the end of one thousand years of monarchy and finalizing the September 21st declaration of the first French republic, governed by the motto “liberté, égalité, fraternité.” Nine months later, Queen Marie Antoinette, a foreigner long-mocked as “Madame Déficit” for her extravagant reputation, was executed as well.
But the Revolution would not end there. Some leaders, not content with just changing the government, sought to completely transform French society – its religion, its street names, even its calendar. As multiple factions formed, the extremist Jacobins led by Maximilien Robespierre launched a Reign of Terror to suppress the slightest dissent, executing over 20,000 people before the Jacobins’ own downfall.
Amidst the chaos, a general named Napoleon Bonaparte took charge, becoming Emperor as he claimed to defend the Revolution’s democratic values. However, his rule marked the beginning of a new era of authoritarianism and imperial expansion.
All in all, the French Revolution saw three constitutions and five governments within ten years, followed by decades alternating between monarchy and revolt before the next Republic formed in 1871. And while we celebrate the French Revolution’s ideals, we still struggle with many of the same basic questions raised over two centuries ago.
Imagine you are a member of one of the three Estates during the French Revolution. Prepare a speech to present your perspective on the issues of the time, including taxation, representation, and the abolition of the feudal system. Then, engage in a debate with your classmates, who will represent the other Estates.
Examine primary sources from the French Revolution, such as the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. Analyze the language and ideas presented in these documents. What do they tell you about the values and goals of the Revolution?
Create a detailed timeline of the French Revolution, from the conditions in France before the Revolution to the rise of Napoleon. Include key events, figures, and changes in government. This will help you visualize the progression and complexity of the Revolution.
Choose a key figure from the French Revolution, such as King Louis XVI, Jacques Necker, or Maximilien Robespierre. Conduct a character study, exploring their actions, motivations, and impact on the Revolution. Present your findings to the class.
Reflect on the legacy of the French Revolution. How have its ideals and outcomes influenced modern society and government? Write an essay discussing your thoughts, using evidence from the article and additional research to support your points.
French Revolution – A period of political and social upheaval in France between 1789 and 1799 that led to the overthrow of the French monarchy – Example sentence: The French Revolution transformed the nation’s social, political and economic order.
Three Estates – The medieval and absolutist French social system that divided the population into three classes: the First Estate (clergy), the Second Estate (nobility), and the Third Estate (everyone else) – Example sentence: The Three Estates were a major source of discontent for the lower classes during the French Revolution.
National Assembly – A legislative body established during the French Revolution, consisting of members of the Third Estate, and later other members of society – Example sentence: The National Assembly was first established in 1789 and was responsible for issuing the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.
Tax Reforms – Changes to the taxation system that are meant to make it more fair, efficient or equitable – Example sentence: The Tax Reforms of the late 18th century in France aimed to increase taxes on the First and Second Estates while reducing them for the Third Estate.
Estates-General – A French legislative body composed of representatives of the three Estates, which had not been convened since 1614 – Example sentence: The Estates-General was convened by King Louis XVI in 1789, a major event that launched the French Revolution.
Third Estate – The lowest of the three Estates in medieval and absolutist France, composed of the commoners, merchants, and artisans – Example sentence: The Third Estate was the most populous of the Estates, but it had the least amount of representation in government.
Divine Right – The belief that a monarch’s right to rule is bestowed by God and is thus not subject to challenge or resistance by the people – Example sentence: The French people had long opposed the concept of Divine Right, and it was a major factor contributing to the French Revolution.
Jacques Necker – The French finance minister who was influential in creating the Estates-General and whose dismissal in 1789 helped trigger the French Revolution – Example sentence: Jacques Necker’s dismissal from his ministerial post in 1789 was seen as a major affront to the Third Estate, and it was a major catalyst for the beginning of the French Revolution.
Bastille – A military fortress in Paris that was stormed by revolutionaries on July 14, 1789, a major event that marked the beginning of the French Revolution – Example sentence: The storming of the Bastille is a major event that symbolizes the start of the French Revolution and the overthrow of the French monarchy.
Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen – A document drafted by the National Assembly in 1789 that established the rights of all citizens, such as freedom of speech and religion, as well as equal access to justice – Example sentence: The Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen was a major accomplishment of the French Revolution and it remains an important part of French law today.
King Louis XVI – The last king of France before the French Revolution, who was overthrown and executed in 1793 – Example sentence: King Louis XVI was a major figure of the French Revolution, and his execution in 1793 marked the end of the French monarchy.
Reign of Terror – A period of extreme violence and repression that was implemented by the National Convention during the French Revolution, lasting from 1793-1794 – Example sentence: The Reign of Terror was a major event during the French Revolution, and it resulted in the deaths of thousands of people.
Maximilien Robespierre – A French lawyer and statesman who was a major figure in the French Revolution and who headed the Committee of Public Safety during the Reign of Terror – Example sentence: Maximilien Robespierre was a major leader of the French Revolution and his work on the Committee of Public Safety is widely seen as instrumental in ending the Reign of Terror.
Napoleon Bonaparte – A French military and political leader who rose to power during the French Revolution and was Emperor of France from 1804 to 1814 – Example sentence: Napoleon Bonaparte was a major figure of the French Revolution, and his rise to power is seen as the end of the Revolution and the start of a new era.
Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité – A slogan that was adopted by the revolutionaries during the French Revolution, which translates to “liberty, equality, fraternity” – Example sentence: The slogan “Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité” was a major rallying cry of the revolutionaries during the French Revolution and is still used today as a symbol of French national identity.
