England’s existence is often overlooked, overshadowed by the broader histories of Great Britain and the United Kingdom. However, before these unions could form, England had to exist first, officially since 927 AD. So, how did England come to be? Who lived there before the English, and how did it evolve into the nation we recognize today?
As the Roman Empire withdrew from the British Isles, modern-day England experienced a significant migration of Anglo-Saxon Germanic tribes. Historians suggest that after the Romans left, the native Britons faced threats from the Picts and Scots. In response, they invited some Anglo-Saxons to help defend against these invaders. While the Anglo-Saxons succeeded in repelling the Picts and Scots, they eventually turned against the Britons, establishing their rule by the 7th century. This led to the formation of several Anglo-Saxon kingdoms: Essex, Kent, Sussex, Mercia, East Anglia, Northumbria, and Wessex.
For a few centuries, these kingdoms coexisted with little recorded history until they faced new invaders—the Vikings. In 793, Vikings raided the Lindisfarne Monastery, shocking the Anglo-Saxons. By 870, East Anglia fell to the Danes, followed by Mercia in 874. Northumbria was next, leaving Wessex as the last major Anglo-Saxon kingdom.
When Wessex’s King Æthelred died, his brother Alfred took charge. Initially, Alfred paid off the Vikings but later led a successful military campaign against them at the Battle of Edington. This victory preserved Wessex’s independence and allowed Alfred to exert influence over Mercia, although part of it remained under Viking control.
After Alfred’s death, his successors, Edward the Elder and Æthelflæd, expanded their territories. By 917, Æthelflæd had extended Mercia northward, and Edward incorporated East Anglia into his kingdom. Æthelflæd’s death led to her daughter Ælfwynn’s brief rule, but she was soon ousted, allowing Edward to seize Mercia.
By 918, the Anglo-Saxons advanced into Danelaw territory, gaining more land. Upon Edward’s death in 924, his son Æthelstan took over, eventually bringing Northumbria under his control. This period is often seen as the birth of the Kingdom of England.
Despite Æthelstan’s efforts to expand further into Scotland, his ambitions were thwarted at the Battle of Brunanburh in 937. Although victorious, England did not incorporate Alba or Strathclyde, which remained independent.
After Æthelstan’s death in 939, the Vikings briefly regained some territories. However, King Edmund soon reclaimed these lands, reuniting England. His successor, Eadred, faced challenges from Eric Bloodaxe but eventually secured Northumbria for England.
Under King Edgar, known as Edgar the Peaceful, England experienced stability and reform. He maintained many Danelaw systems to appease the Danish population, fostering peace and unity. Edgar’s nearly two-decade reign laid the foundations for the Kingdom of England.
The formation of England was a complex journey. From Anglo-Saxon migrations and kingdom establishments to Viking invasions and eventual unification, England’s history is rich with conflict and consolidation. Under Edgar the Peaceful, the foundational laws and structures of modern England began to take shape, setting the stage for the nation we know today.
Create a detailed timeline that traces the key events leading to the formation of England. Include significant milestones such as the Roman withdrawal, Anglo-Saxon migrations, Viking invasions, and the unification efforts under Æthelstan. Use visual aids and historical maps to enhance your timeline.
Engage in a role-playing debate where you represent different historical figures or groups, such as the Anglo-Saxons, Vikings, or native Britons. Discuss the motivations, challenges, and strategies each group faced during the formation of England. This will help you understand the perspectives and conflicts of the era.
Conduct research on one of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, such as Wessex or Mercia, and present your findings to the class. Focus on the kingdom’s history, culture, and its role in the unification of England. Use multimedia elements like slideshows or videos to make your presentation engaging.
Write a short historical fiction piece set during a pivotal moment in England’s formation, such as the Battle of Edington or the reign of Edgar the Peaceful. Use historical facts to ground your story while creatively exploring the experiences and emotions of the characters involved.
Utilize an interactive map tool to explore the geographical changes in England from the Roman era to the reign of Edgar the Peaceful. Identify and annotate key locations, battles, and territorial shifts. This activity will help you visualize the dynamic nature of England’s early history.
The existence of England is often taken for granted and examined too superficially. This may be due to the overshadowing history of Great Britain and the United Kingdom, but in order for these unions to be formed, England had to already exist—since 927 AD, to be precise. So, how was England created, who inhabited the land before the English, and how did it become the nation we know today?
As the Roman Empire began to fade from the British Isles, the area of modern-day England saw a wave of migration from Anglo-Saxon Germanic tribes. According to some historians, after the Romans left, the native Britons faced attacks from the nearby Picts and Scots and subsequently welcomed some of these Anglo-Saxons in hopes that they would help repel the other invaders. The Germanic peoples were successful in expelling both the Scots and Picts, but then they turned on the native Britons and established their own authority by the start of the 7th century. The new Anglo-Saxon rulers established the kingdoms of Essex, Kent, Sussex, Mercia, East Anglia, Northumbria, and Wessex on the British mainland.
There are minimal records of what happened over the next few centuries throughout these kingdoms, but we do know that it wouldn’t be long before the Anglo-Saxons faced invaders of their own. In 793, a Viking army landed at the Lindisfarne Monastery and raided the sacred building. Their violence stunned the Anglo-Saxons, who were unprepared for what the Vikings had in store. By the end of 870, East Anglia fell to the Danish invaders, and Mercia was lost only four years later. As the Vikings seized Northumbria next in 875, Wessex was the only remaining major kingdom under Anglo-Saxon authority.
When the king of Wessex, Æthelred, died, his younger brother Alfred was left to protect his kingdom’s independence. At first, he did so by paying off the Viking aggressors until he was eventually prepared to lead an army against them. This culminated in the Battle of Edington, which left the Danes utterly defeated and ended their attempts to capture Wessex. A power vacuum in Mercia around the same time resulted in King Alfred gaining control of the kingdom, and instead of establishing a new monarch, he placed an ealdorman in charge. This nobleman answered to King Alfred himself, maintaining the King of Wessex as the ultimate authority throughout both regions, although a part of Mercia would be ceded to the Vikings.
After the death of the King of Wessex and the contemporary leader of Mercia in 911, Edward the Elder and Æthelflæd became the respective successors. Together, these new rulers increased the pressure on the neighboring Danelaw and worked to expand their territories. In 917, Æthelflæd expanded her lands to the north, and Edward was able to incorporate all of East Anglia into his kingdom. As Æthelflæd pushed forward, she extended Mercian territory all the way up to York, where the locals decided it would be best to pledge loyalty to her rather than fight. Although Æthelflæd shortly died, her daughter, Ælfwynn, was supposed to take her place and continue the current course. Unexpectedly, though, the Mercian people quickly ousted their new leader, creating an opportunity for King Edward from Wessex to seize all of Mercia not long after.
In 918, the Anglo-Saxons continued into Danelaw territory and slowly gained more land for themselves. By the time of Edward’s death in 924, the newly acquired neighbors of the Anglo-Saxons had all pledged allegiance to the king. This put the Anglo-Saxons in a confident position as Edward’s son, Æthelstan, took over the kingdom. Around this time, Æthelstan’s sister married the local Viking ruler, Sihtric, who still controlled Northumbria. Æthelstan marched on and was finally able to bring the Kingdom of York under his crown after his sister’s husband passed away. This left Northumbria open for consolidation, and the king swiftly incorporated it into his kingdom.
This period is generally viewed by historians as the creation of the Kingdom of England. However, the situation was not so simple. Æthelstan was not done trying to expand his kingdom, and although he termed himself the “King of the English” at this point, it was still not quite what we know as England today. In 937, Æthelstan decided to invade Scotland, then known as Alba, to extend his authority further. The Kingdom of Alba was at a disadvantage and appealed to other sovereign states for assistance, prompting an alliance between Constantine II, King of Alba, Olaf Guthfrithson, King of Dublin, and Owain, King of Strathclyde. With King Olaf at the helm, the alliance faced the English at the Battle of Brunanburh. Though the exact location of this battle is unknown, it is certain that the alliance was severely defeated by the English invaders. The casualties on both sides were high, but Æthelstan and the English emerged as the victors. Many believe this clash solidified the unity of England and stirred a new sense of nationalism and pride among the English people. Nonetheless, it didn’t result in the incorporation of Alba or Strathclyde into the Kingdom of England, as both remained independent.
The Vikings, though temporarily defeated, returned to the young kingdom at the end of the 10th century. After Æthelstan’s death in 939, the previously defeated King of Dublin took advantage of England’s temporary instability. While King Æthelstan’s half-brother, Edmund, took over the English realm, King Olaf reconquered some lands that had once been in Viking hands. York was quickly captured, along with a large portion of what used to be Northumbria and Mercia, as he forced the English into accepting this annexation. Ironically, when Olaf died in 941, Edmund seized the opportunity to retaliate against the Vikings. The following year, the middle chunk of annexed land was retaken by the English, and in just two more years, the Vikings were entirely pushed out of Northumbria. This essentially reunited England under Edmund’s control.
As ambitious as his ancestors, Edmund next invaded Strathclyde, but only captured some of its southern territories by the end of the incursion. The rest was given to King Malcolm I of Scotland instead of joining England. It appeared that the Kingdom of England had established some stability, but this was once again short-lived. Edmund was mysteriously murdered in 946, leaving his younger brother, Eadred, as King of England. The next year, Eric Bloodaxe from Norway attacked and seized the recently re-incorporated Northumbria, leading to nearly a decade of conflicts over who would lead Northumbria. Eventually, the English king was able to reclaim the territory on behalf of England permanently. His death soon ended his reign after this victory, and his young nephew, Eadwig, temporarily succeeded him but was quickly deposed in favor of his brother, Edgar. However, this was only a partial deposition, meaning Eadwig would still hold a small section of the kingdom as a co-ruler. When Eadwig died only two years later, Edgar took over the whole of England.
Under the reign of King Edgar, known as Edgar the Peaceful, the true foundations of the English kingdom could finally be established. Many reforms were passed, and a vast number of the systems and laws that had existed in the Danelaw were upheld to avoid displeasure from the Danish population. Peace, unity, and order were the pillars of Edgar’s nearly two-decade-long reign, and his work helped to solidify the unity of the young Kingdom of England.
The ultimate formation of England was a long and shaky process. From the initial immigration of the Anglo-Saxons into the region to the establishment of their first kingdoms, extending into the invasion and rule of the Vikings, it wasn’t until the Anglo-Saxons began to seize territory from the Danelaw that an inkling of modern-day England could be seen. After a series of conquering, being conquered, and reconquering, the Anglo-Saxons eventually united the existing kingdoms throughout England. From there, it was merely a matter of establishing solid borders, maintaining their captured territory to keep their kingdom physically intact, and eventually, under the rule of Edgar the Peaceful, building the foundational laws and structures of what we now know as the Kingdom, or nation, of England.
England – A country that is part of the United Kingdom, with a rich history that includes periods of Roman, Anglo-Saxon, and Norman rule. – England’s history is marked by significant events such as the signing of the Magna Carta in 1215, which laid the foundation for modern democracy.
Anglo-Saxons – A group of Germanic tribes who settled in England during the early Middle Ages, significantly influencing the culture and language of the region. – The Anglo-Saxons established several kingdoms in England, which later unified under a single monarchy.
Vikings – Seafaring Scandinavian warriors and traders who raided and settled in many parts of Europe from the late eighth to early eleventh centuries. – The Viking invasions had a profound impact on the political landscape of England, leading to the eventual establishment of the Danelaw.
Kingdoms – Political and territorial units ruled by a king or queen, often characterized by a hierarchical structure and centralized authority. – During the early medieval period, England was divided into several kingdoms, including Wessex, Mercia, and Northumbria.
History – The study of past events, particularly in human affairs, encompassing various periods, cultures, and significant occurrences. – Understanding the history of the Roman Empire provides insights into the development of Western civilization.
Migration – The movement of people from one place to another, often for reasons such as economic opportunity, conflict, or environmental changes. – The Great Migration saw millions of African Americans move from the rural South to urban centers in the North during the early 20th century.
Unification – The process of bringing together separate entities or groups into a single, cohesive unit, often in a political or social context. – The unification of Italy in the 19th century was a complex process involving wars, diplomacy, and the efforts of key figures like Giuseppe Garibaldi.
Territory – An area of land under the jurisdiction of a ruler or state, often defined by geographical or political boundaries. – The expansion of the Roman Empire involved the acquisition of vast territories across Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East.
Reform – The process of making changes to an institution or practice in order to improve it, often in a political, social, or economic context. – The Protestant Reformation was a major religious reform movement that led to significant changes in the Christian Church and European society.
Conflict – A serious disagreement or argument, often a protracted one, which can occur between individuals, groups, or nations. – The Cold War was a period of intense geopolitical conflict between the United States and the Soviet Union, marked by ideological rivalry and nuclear arms competition.
