During the transition from the Middle Ages to modern history, the Ottoman Empire’s army emerged as the most formidable military force globally. As they expanded from the Middle East into Central Europe, entire empires and kingdoms fell before them. Among these soldiers, the Janissaries stood out for their bravery and skill, leaving a lasting impact on both the military and political history of the Ottoman Empire.
The exact origins of the Janissaries are somewhat mysterious, as there are no contemporary Ottoman records detailing their formation. However, it is believed that they were established in the 14th century by either Sultan Orhan I or his son, Murad I. During Murad I’s reign, the Ottomans began their incursions into the European territories of the Byzantine Empire. Influenced by neighboring armies, particularly the Byzantines, the Ottomans recruited skilled archers, many of whom were Christian prisoners of war. These soldiers were organized into a distinct unit known as the “Yeniçeri” or “New Soldiers.”
By the latter half of the 14th century, the Janissaries had become a standing army, marking them as the first of their kind in Europe during the modern age. Initially, they supplemented the Yaya infantry but soon became integral to the Sultan’s household troops, known as the Kapikulu. Under Sultan Mehmed II, the Janissaries became the core of the Ottoman military, receiving increased salaries and better weapons. This period marked the beginning of their golden age, during which they played a crucial role in the Ottoman conquests, including the capture of Constantinople in 1453 and the siege of Vienna in 1683.
Each new Sultan was expected to reward the Janissaries, further increasing their pay and privileges. By the early 16th century, they were allowed to marry, and their influence grew with each successive ruler. Although loyal to the Ottoman dynasty, the Janissaries were not always loyal to individual Sultans, participating in numerous rebellions. In 1622, they even captured and executed Sultan Osman II when he attempted to disband their corps.
By the mid-18th century, the Janissaries numbered over 110,000, though only a fraction served in military roles. Their power extended to the point where they could overthrow Sultans and control regions independently of the central government in Istanbul. However, their influence became intolerable by the early 19th century. In 1826, Sultan Mahmud II sought to modernize the Ottoman army and disbanded the Janissaries. This led to a revolt, resulting in the deaths of 4,000 Janissaries and the imprisonment or exile of thousands more, effectively ending their four-century-old institution.
The Janissaries were unique in their recruitment and training process, which involved a system known as “Devshirme” or “blood tax.” This system targeted Christian subjects, taking young boys from their families to be trained as Janissaries. The recruitment process aimed to avoid any inherent political interests by maintaining a foreign composition within the corps.
Officers would travel to selected regions, primarily in the Balkans and Anatolia, collecting one child from every 40 households. These boys, typically aged eight to ten, were sent to Turkish farming families to learn the language and Islamic faith. After several years, they were sent to training corps in Istanbul, where they learned various military skills, including musketry, which became a hallmark of their combat proficiency.
Janissaries were known for their distinctive attire, including a unique hat called the “Bork” and a cooking pot known as the “Kazan,” which symbolized their unity and discipline. They initially used bows and later adopted firearms, becoming adept at using matchlock arquebuses and eventually flintlock muskets. Despite their prowess, the Janissaries resisted certain weapons and tactics, viewing them as contrary to their ideals of bravery.
Their battlefield tactics placed them at the center of formations, supported by cavalry. However, as European armies developed more disciplined infantry units, the Janissaries’ effectiveness waned. By the end of the 18th century, their tactics had become outdated, leading to a decline in discipline and exclusivity. This decline mirrored the gradual weakening of the Ottoman Empire itself.
Investigate the historical context and origins of the Janissaries. Form small groups and present your findings on how the Janissaries were established, including the role of Sultan Orhan I and Murad I. Discuss the influence of neighboring armies and the recruitment of Christian prisoners of war.
Engage in a debate about the political influence of the Janissaries within the Ottoman Empire. Consider their loyalty to the dynasty versus individual Sultans, and discuss the implications of their rebellions, such as the execution of Sultan Osman II.
Participate in a role-playing simulation of the “Devshirme” system. Assume roles as officers, families, and recruits to understand the recruitment and training process. Reflect on the social and cultural impacts of this system on both the recruits and their families.
Analyze the military tactics and evolution of the Janissaries from their inception to their decline. Create a timeline highlighting key battles and changes in weaponry, such as the transition from bows to firearms. Discuss how these changes affected their effectiveness on the battlefield.
Create a multimedia project that explores the daily life, attire, and legacy of the Janissaries. Include elements such as their distinctive “Bork” hat and “Kazan” cooking pot. Present how their legacy influenced modern military practices and the eventual decline of their institution.
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At the turn from the Middle Ages to modern history, the army of the Ottoman Empire was the most dominant military force in the world. Entire empires and kingdoms disappeared on their march from the Middle East to Central Europe. No one could match the bravery and excellence of the Ottoman soldiers, with the best and most reputable among them being the Janissaries.
The Janissaries left a significant mark not only on the military but also on the political history of the Ottoman Empire. The exact time and manner of their establishment are not known for sure, as historians have not found texts from this period written by the Ottomans. What is known about this civilization comes from third-party writings and tradition. The older Ottoman texts that refer to the 14th century are from the late 16th century and discuss what was already a distant past in their present.
The Janissaries were created by either Sultan Orhan I or his son Murad I in the 14th century. During Murad I’s reign, the Ottomans began invading the European part of the Byzantine Empire. At this time, Ottoman military power was being structured and was heavily influenced by neighboring armies, primarily the Byzantines, whose most effective unit at the time was their archers. Many of these skilled soldiers ended up as Turkish prisoners of war during various European campaigns and were subsequently recruited by the Ottoman army. As they were Christians, they were organized as a separate unit known as the “Yeniçeri” or “New Soldiers.”
In the second half of the 14th century, the Janissaries became a standing army of the Ottoman Empire, making them the first standing army in Europe in the modern age. Initially, they fought as supplements to the Yaya infantry, but their importance increased by the end of the century when they became part of the Sultan’s household troops, known as the Kapikulu.
Sultan Mehmed II made the Janissaries the core of the Ottoman army, increasing their salaries and providing them with improved weapons. This marked the beginning of their rise within the army and the empire as a whole. As the backbone of the army, the Janissaries paved the way for the grand Ottoman conquests in Southeastern Europe, leading to the conquest of Constantinople in 1453 and reaching the walls of Vienna in 1683. Of the 150,000 soldiers that besieged the city, one-quarter were Janissaries. This period, from the mid-15th to the late 17th century, is considered their golden age.
Each Sultan who ascended to the throne was obliged to reward the Janissaries and increase their pay. In the early 16th century, they were granted permission to marry, and their influence grew with each new ruler. As the personal guard of the Sultan, they spent considerable time in his household in the capital, building alliances and power. While they were always loyal to the dynasty, they were not necessarily loyal to individual Sultans, participating in many rebellions against leaders of the empire. In 1622, they even captured and killed Sultan Osman II by strangling him when he attempted to disband the Janissary corps.
Their influence in the Ottoman Empire lasted much longer. By the mid-18th century, there were more than 110,000 Janissaries, although only a small portion were in military service. They still had the strength to overthrow the Sultan and dictate life in the empire, with some regions under complete rule by Janissary leaders cut off from the government in Istanbul. Their continued influence became intolerable by the beginning of the 19th century. In 1826, Sultan Mahmud II decided to modernize the Ottoman army and disband the Janissaries. The Janissaries revolted and advanced on the Sultan’s palace, resulting in the deaths of 4,000 Janissaries and thousands more imprisoned or exiled, effectively ending their four-century-old institution.
What made the Janissaries unique was their recruitment and training process. Recruitment was conducted through a taxation form called “Devshirme” or “blood tax,” a special tribute applied only to Christian subjects. Young boys were taken from their families to be trained as Janissaries. This tax was collected each year in different regions, primarily in the Balkans and Anatolia. The idea was that by having this foreign composition, there would be no inborn political interests.
A Janissary officer would travel to a selected region, collecting one child from every 40 households. This average varied, as they were required to enlist between one thousand and three thousand boys for service. The collecting officer focused on boys between eight and ten years old, preferably from families with several male children in rural areas. Most of these boys ended up as Janissary infantrymen, while the most intelligent were chosen to become “Iç Oğlan” or “Palace Boys,” sent to the Sultan’s palace schools for training in high office.
Despite the Devshirme system, Janissaries were not slaves in the conventional sense, as they were paid for their services and enjoyed many privileges. They were exclusively recruited from the Christian population, and although they converted to Islam after recruitment, they did not lose their servile status. The only Muslim subjects allowed to enlist in the Janissaries were converts from Bosnia. The Devshirme system was introduced in the late 14th century and lasted until the late 17th century. Over time, the number of Janissaries increased, leading to many Muslims eventually being allowed to enter service, initially reserved for the sons of Janissaries but later open to native-born Muslims who could pay a bribe.
The growth in the number of Janissaries also occurred due to military demand. Being a Janissary offered many benefits and opportunities, which caused them to transition from an elite military formation to a more elite social group with strong political power, ultimately leading to a decline in discipline and overall regression. In their final days, only a small number of Janissaries remained as the Sultan’s household soldiers.
The first step for a boy to become a Janissary was conversion to Islam. After passing the selection process, those chosen for the Janissary corps were sent to Turkish farming families in Anatolia, where they stayed for seven or eight years, learning the Turkish language and principles of the Islamic faith. They performed various farming duties to obtain discipline and become accustomed to hard labor. After this, they were sent to the training corps in Istanbul. Most were trained to become Janissary infantrymen, while others learned various trades required for military service, from gunnery to cooking. This self-sufficient nature was maintained within the Janissary corps.
Janissary soldiers were trained in handling all kinds of weapons and combat techniques, with a strong emphasis on musketry. They were trained to shoot muskets at great distances, sometimes using only one hand, resulting in excellent marksmanship and reloading speed. This proficiency often proved decisive in battles against European armies.
During their training, the recruits were supervised by eunuchs who enforced strict discipline. Female company was completely forbidden, and boys were trained to live in small, confined groups, similar to how they would live once they became Janissaries. This stage of training lasted approximately six years, after which they were sent to operational units.
The final stage was the solemn reception of the Janissaries. All graduates formed a line and marched in front of their new commander, receiving a distinctive hat and certificate of acceptance. The following evening, after a joint prayer, the new Janissaries donned their coats and kissed their commander’s hand, who then addressed them as “travel companions.”
The most distinctive feature of the Janissaries was their unique hat, known as the “Bork.” Although some Janissary units wore other types of hats, the Bork was a long, sleeve-shaped hat made of wool and colored white. It had a metal plate attached to the forehead as a badge, to which a feather could be pinned depending on military rank. The back of the cap was so long that it reached below the shoulders, protecting the soldier from sun and rain. The standard outfit included trousers and a short jacket, topped with long woolen coats called “Dolama.” Senior officers in some privileged units wore yellow uniforms.
The most valuable equipment for the Janissary unit was their cooking pot, known as the “Kazan.” Janissaries gathered around a Kazan each day for one meal provided to them. The Kazan was carried with special pride during parades; tipping one over was a sign of mutiny, while losing one was considered the ultimate disgrace.
Janissaries used a variety of weapons. Initially, they were engaged as archers using bows, but shortly after firearms were introduced, they switched to matchlock arquebuses. These distinctive large-bore matchlocks fired balls weighing up to 80 grams. The Janissaries continued to use matchlocks for a long time before adopting flintlock muskets relatively late. In addition to long-range weapons, they were equipped with close-combat weapons such as kilij sabers and distinctive Turkish curved swords called “Yatagan,” which became their signature weapon, along with various polearms, battle axes, halberds, and spears.
Janissaries were repulsed by certain types of weapons, considering them contrary to their understanding of bravery. This philosophy restrained them from attacking in an orderly fashion, as they found such methods too calculating and unworthy of the brave warriors they believed themselves to be.
Standard Ottoman battle tactics placed the Janissaries in the center of the formation, with cavalry in front and on the flanks. The “Sipahi” cavalry would commence the attack by charging into the enemy, attempting to break their defenses or lure them into battle. The Janissaries would then attack, encouraged by the “Mekteb” troops, first by firing their muskets and then by charging in a dense mass.
Initially, enemies on the battlefield had no response to these fierce tactics. However, as European armies began to introduce more disciplined infantry units, Janissary attacks became less successful. By the end of the 18th century, the Janissaries had become obsolete in their tactics, leading to a loss of exclusivity and a decline in discipline. Their fate mirrored that of the entire Ottoman Empire, which was slowly declining.
Janissaries – An elite military unit that formed the Ottoman Sultan’s household troops and bodyguards, originally composed of Christian youths converted to Islam and trained as soldiers. – The Janissaries played a crucial role in the expansion of the Ottoman Empire, serving as a formidable force in battles across Europe and the Middle East.
Ottoman – Relating to the Ottoman Empire, a vast and powerful Turkish empire that lasted from the late 13th century until the early 20th century. – The Ottoman architectural style is characterized by large domes and minarets, as seen in the famous Hagia Sophia in Istanbul.
Empire – A large political unit or state, usually under a single leader, that controls many peoples or territories. – The Roman Empire is often studied for its extensive influence on law, politics, and culture in Western civilization.
Military – Relating to the armed forces or to soldiers, arms, or war. – The military strategies employed by Napoleon Bonaparte are still analyzed in military academies around the world.
Recruitment – The process of enlisting new people into the armed forces or other organizations. – The recruitment of soldiers for the American Civil War was a significant challenge for both the Union and the Confederacy.
Training – The process of teaching or learning the skills needed for a particular job or activity, especially in a military context. – The rigorous training of Spartan warriors was legendary, contributing to their reputation as one of the most formidable military forces in ancient Greece.
History – The study of past events, particularly in human affairs. – The history of the French Revolution provides insight into the social and political upheavals that shaped modern Europe.
Sultan – A Muslim sovereign, especially a ruler of the Ottoman Empire. – Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent is remembered for his significant contributions to the legal and cultural development of the Ottoman Empire.
Influence – The capacity to have an effect on the character, development, or behavior of someone or something. – The influence of Enlightenment thinkers on the American Revolution is evident in the founding principles of the United States.
Decline – A gradual and continuous loss of strength, numbers, quality, or value. – The decline of the Roman Empire is often attributed to a combination of internal weaknesses and external pressures.
