In February 1799, French General Napoleon Bonaparte found himself in a precarious position in Egypt. Although he had successfully conquered the region, his control was threatened by local revolts, and the British had destroyed his fleet, leaving him isolated from reinforcements. Meanwhile, the Ottoman Sultan was determined to reclaim Egypt, assembling two large armies for the task. Napoleon decided to act swiftly, targeting the most immediate threat: a formidable Ottoman force gathering in Syria.
On February 10th, Napoleon led a force of 13,000 men into the Sinai Desert, aiming for the Holy Land. Despite the limited size of his army, it was a well-trained and motivated group, organized into four infantry divisions and a cavalry brigade under Murat. However, the harsh desert conditions quickly took a toll. The French struggled with scarce water supplies and dwindling food reserves.
At el-Arish, they encountered unexpected resistance from 3,000 Ottoman soldiers, resulting in an 11-day siege and 400 casualties. After securing the town’s surrender, the French continued into Palestine, where they found much-needed supplies in Gaza, abandoned by the Ottomans.
Napoleon’s next target was Jaffa, a port city defended by 5,000 Ottoman soldiers. After breaching the city’s walls, Napoleon attempted to negotiate a surrender to avoid further bloodshed. However, the Ottomans executed his messenger, prompting a furious assault by the French. The city fell, and in the aftermath, Napoleon faced a difficult decision regarding 3,000 Ottoman prisoners. With limited resources, he ordered their execution, a decision that would haunt him and provide propaganda for his enemies.
As the French advanced, they were struck by an outbreak of bubonic plague. Napoleon bravely visited the sick, an act later celebrated in French propaganda. The main objective, however, was Acre, a city with formidable defenses and support from British ships. The French lacked the heavy artillery needed for a quick siege, and their attempts to breach the city’s walls were met with fierce resistance.
Despite initial setbacks, Napoleon’s forces managed to repel an Ottoman sortie. However, the siege dragged on, and the French faced shortages of ammunition and the continued threat of plague. A chance to end the siege arose when the French detonated a mine under Acre’s walls, but the subsequent assault failed.
With the siege at a stalemate, Napoleon learned of an approaching Ottoman army. He dispatched 4,000 men to confront them, despite the overwhelming odds. In a series of engagements, the French, led by generals like Junot and Kléber, managed to defeat larger Ottoman forces. At Mount Tabor, Kléber’s division held off a massive enemy force until Napoleon arrived with reinforcements, leading to a decisive victory.
Despite the victory at Mount Tabor, the situation at Acre remained dire. The French were unable to prevent supplies from reaching the city, and their own resources were critically low. On May 7th, with new siege artillery in place, Napoleon launched another assault, but it was repelled. Accepting defeat, Napoleon ordered a retreat on May 20th, beginning a grueling march back to Egypt.
Upon returning to Egypt, Napoleon faced a new threat: an Ottoman invasion at Aboukir. On July 25th, he launched an all-out attack with 10,000 men. The French quickly overran the first Ottoman defensive line, and Murat’s cavalry played a crucial role in cutting off the enemy’s retreat. The second line was eventually breached, and the Ottoman commander, Mustafa Pasha, was captured. The victory at Aboukir helped restore Napoleon’s reputation after the setback at Acre.
Despite the victory, news from Europe was troubling. A new coalition, including Britain, Russia, and Austria, threatened France. Napoleon decided to return to France, leaving General Kléber in command. Kléber, however, would not return to Europe, as he was assassinated in Cairo the following year.
Napoleon’s Egyptian campaign ultimately ended in failure, with the French surrendering to the British in 1801. However, the expedition had a lasting impact on the study of Ancient Egypt. The discovery of the Rosetta Stone, which Napoleon’s troops found near Rosetta, proved instrumental in deciphering Egyptian hieroglyphs and laid the foundation for the field of Egyptology.
Napoleon’s journey back to France took 41 days, during which he narrowly avoided capture by the Royal Navy. His return marked the beginning of a new chapter in his rise to power.
This account of Napoleon’s campaign highlights the complexities of historical narratives. While his actions at Jaffa were used against him, other aspects of his campaign were celebrated. In today’s world, with the prevalence of social media and online news, it’s important to consider multiple perspectives and be aware of potential biases. Resources like Ground News can help readers navigate these challenges by providing a data-driven, objective approach to news consumption.
Examine historical maps of Napoleon’s campaign in Egypt and the Middle East. Identify key locations such as the Sinai Desert, Jaffa, Acre, and Mount Tabor. Discuss in groups how terrain and geography influenced Napoleon’s strategic decisions. Consider how you would have planned the campaign differently, taking into account the logistical challenges faced by Napoleon’s forces.
Engage in a role-playing debate where you assume the roles of Napoleon, his generals, and other historical figures. Debate the ethical implications of Napoleon’s decision to execute Ottoman prisoners at Jaffa. Discuss the pressures and constraints faced by military leaders in wartime and how these might influence decision-making.
Conduct research on the discovery of the Rosetta Stone and its significance in the field of Egyptology. Prepare a presentation that explains how this artifact contributed to the understanding of ancient Egyptian culture and language. Highlight the broader implications of Napoleon’s campaign on historical and archaeological studies.
Participate in a simulation game that recreates the Siege of Acre. Work in teams to strategize and manage resources, considering the challenges faced by both the French and Ottoman forces. Reflect on the difficulties of siege warfare and the factors that can lead to success or failure in such operations.
Analyze how Napoleon’s Egyptian campaign has been portrayed in various historical narratives and media. Use resources like Ground News to explore different perspectives and biases. Write a critical essay discussing how historical events are interpreted and the importance of considering multiple viewpoints in understanding history.
**Sanitized Transcript:**
February 1799. French General Napoleon Bonaparte has conquered Egypt. However, his control over the country is threatened by revolt, and the British have destroyed his fleet, cutting him off from reinforcements. The Sultan has vowed to reclaim Egypt, and two large Ottoman armies are being assembled. Napoleon decides to strike first before his enemies are ready. The forces gathering in Syria, rumored to be 50,000 strong, pose the greatest threat, so they will be his first target.
On 10th February, Napoleon leads a force of just 13,000 men into the Sinai Desert, bound for the Holy Land. It’s all the men he can spare, with many needed to maintain order in Egypt. Nevertheless, it’s a highly motivated, experienced, and well-led force organized into four infantry divisions and a cavalry brigade commanded by Murat. For Napoleon, speed and surprise are imperative, but things start to go wrong quickly. The French are poorly prepared for the harsh desert conditions. Water is scarce, and food runs short.
At el-Arish, they unexpectedly find the town garrisoned by 3,000 Ottoman soldiers. The siege holds Napoleon up for 11 days and costs 400 casualties, which he can ill afford. The garrison’s surrender is secured only with generous terms: they are disarmed but allowed to leave after swearing an oath not to take up arms against the French for a year. The French army continues into Palestine, where the fertile plains and fruit trees provide relief after the desert. On 24th February, the French occupy Gaza, where they find large stores of food and ammunition abandoned by the Ottomans.
Napoleon’s next objective is the port city of Jaffa, held by 5,000 Ottoman soldiers. His field guns blast away at its stone walls until finally, a breach is made. However, when Napoleon sends a messenger to invite surrender to spare both sides the horrors of an assault, the Ottomans execute him and display his head from the city walls. Enraged, French soldiers storm the breach and overwhelm the defenders, flooding into the city and engaging in widespread violence that lasts 24 hours.
The aftermath of the sack of Jaffa leaves Napoleon with 3,000 Ottoman prisoners, who have been promised their lives. However, with his troops and supplies already stretched thin, he is reluctant to spare any to guard or feed these captives. After conferring with his officers, Napoleon gives the order to execute the prisoners. Over three days, the French lead the prisoners in batches to the beach and kill them. This decision will haunt Napoleon for the rest of his life, as he insists he had no choice. The massacres provide propaganda for his enemies and seem to encourage them to fight harder.
Within days, hundreds of French soldiers fall sick with bubonic plague. Napoleon shows bravery by visiting the sick in the hospital, an act later celebrated by his own propaganda. He now heads towards his main objective – Acre, the ancient port city known for its role in the Crusades, now the seat of the local Ottoman governor, Ahmed Pasha al-Djezzar, known as ‘The Butcher.’ He has ignored Napoleon’s invitation to surrender, and unknown to Napoleon, two British ships have arrived to support him.
Napoleon arrives at Mount Carmel, just in time to see the British capture a coastal convoy carrying his vital siege guns. Their loss is a massive blow to his hopes for a quick siege. On 18th March, the French arrive outside Acre’s walls and start to dig in. Without their siege guns, the city’s defenses are a major challenge. Acre bristles with 250 guns, is surrounded on three sides by the sea, and has walls that are 8 feet thick. The British control the sea, ensuring easy resupply, and have landed marines and naval gun crews to bolster the defenses.
Ten days after their arrival, the French bombardment begins. Napoleon’s field guns smash a small breach in the walls but are then overwhelmed by counterfire. Napoleon sends in his infantry with scaling ladders, but a hidden moat disrupts their assault, and defenders blast them with muskets and hurl down rocks. The French hurriedly fall back in disorder. Any man left behind is likely to be executed, as ‘the Butcher’ has offered a reward for every French head brought to him. The French repel an Ottoman sortie, inflicting heavy losses.
The siege of Acre enters a stalemate. Napoleon waits for heavier guns to arrive from Alexandria before risking another assault. However, alarming news arrives: the Ottoman army gathering to the north, 40,000 strong, is on the move. Napoleon can spare just 4,000 men to face them. The odds seem insane, but he trusts in the training and experience of his troops. Unsure of the enemy’s line of advance, he divides his force.
On 8th April, at Nazareth, Junot locates and scatters an enemy cavalry force ten times his number. Three days later, Kléber defeats 5,000 at Cana, while Murat surprises another force north of Lake Galilee. On the 15th, General Kléber learns that the main enemy force has camped near Mount Hamoreh, 8 miles from Mount Tabor. Seeking glory, Kléber advances with just his own division, intending to surprise the enemy at dawn. However, he misjudges the march and finds himself exposed on open ground, facing 35,000.
Kléber’s division forms square and holds the enemy at bay for 10 hours under a scorching sun, but they are running low on ammunition and desperate for reinforcements. Napoleon races towards them with 2,500 men and arrives just in time, attacking the Ottoman army from behind and taking them by surprise. Most of their forces are a peasant militia, and seized by panic, they flee in all directions. Kléber joins the attack, and the Ottoman army disintegrates. At a cost of fewer than 300 casualties, Napoleon has destroyed the enemy relief force and secured control of Palestine.
However, at Acre, the situation is deteriorating for the French. Without control of the sea, they cannot prevent supplies and reinforcements from entering the city. Their own ammunition stocks are so low that men are sent to find spent cannonballs to fire back. Most alarmingly, plague breaks out in the French camp, with around 20 new cases every day. Then, suddenly, a chance to end the siege arises: on 24th April, the French explode a mine under one of Acre’s towers, causing serious damage. Napoleon orders an immediate assault, but once again, they come under torrential fire and have to fall back.
The clock is ticking for Napoleon. He fears having to recross the Sinai Desert in high summer when the heat will be lethal. Finally, on 7th May, Napoleon’s replacement siege artillery arrives. Not wasting a moment, the French heavy guns open fire the next morning, bringing down large sections of the city’s crumbling walls. French troops attack at multiple points, some fighting their way into the city. However, counterattacks by British marines and Turkish troops throw them back. General Lannes is wounded and narrowly escapes.
On 10th May, Napoleon calls on Kléber’s grenadiers to make a final attempt on the city. Despite the French heroism and courage, the firepower and skill of their enemy prove insurmountable. Napoleon, observing the attack from a forward battery, is knocked off his feet by a near miss. Finally, he accepts that his men have done all that can be asked. The attempt to take Acre has failed. Acre is Napoleon’s first major military defeat. The four-month campaign will cost him 4,500 casualties, more than a third of his army’s fighting strength. Nevertheless, he has succeeded in his main objective – neutralizing the threat from Syria.
On 20th May, his army begins the 300-mile march back to Egypt. En route, at Jaffa, Napoleon orders that around fifty of his men, unable to march due to plague, be put out of their suffering. They are mercy-killings, but the decision is still controversial. The French retreat continues into the desert. The heat is overpowering, and water is in short supply. Morale is at rock bottom. Finally, after 25 days of marching, the army reaches Cairo on 14th June. Their return is marked by triumphal parades and celebrations across the city, organized by Napoleon, who is determined that his campaign be seen as a success.
The men have just a few weeks to rest. On 15th July, news arrives that the long-awaited Ottoman invasion has begun at Aboukir. There is no time to lose. Napoleon must hit the enemy immediately before they can break out into the Nile Delta. With most of the Cairo garrison, Murat’s cavalry, and Kléber’s division – 10,000 men in all – he races towards Aboukir. The experienced Ottoman commander, Said Mustafa Pasha, has 9,000 men entrenched in two defensive lines guarding the fortress of Aboukir. His plan is to force the French to attack his strong defenses.
At dawn on 25th July, Napoleon orders an all-out attack. The first Ottoman defensive line is overrun in minutes. French cavalry sweep around to cut off the Ottoman right flank. Hemmed in against the sea, the defenders panic and flee into the water, with thousands drowning. With Destang’s division advancing on the left, Lannes in the center, and Murat’s cavalry on the right, the French advance against the second Ottoman line. Anchored by several redoubts, it resists the first assault. However, when the French fall back, overeager Turkish soldiers leave their entrenchments to pursue them. Murat seizes the moment and charges forward with his cavalry. The second line is overrun.
Murat pushes on to the Ottoman camp and captures Mustafa Pasha at the point of his sword. By 1 PM, the Turkish army has ceased to exist. Just 5,000 survivors remain, holed up in the fortress. They surrender eight days later, on 2nd August – one year to the day after the destruction of Napoleon’s fleet. The Battle of Aboukir is a great victory for Napoleon and helps repair his reputation after the defeat at Acre. However, news reaches him of developments in Europe, and it is not good. A new Second Coalition has formed against France, led by Britain, Russia, and Austria. Their armies have won a series of battles against the French, reversing almost all of Napoleon’s gains in Italy, and now threaten the Republic with invasion.
It is no time for France’s best general to be far from home. On the evening of 23rd August, Napoleon quietly boards a frigate near Alexandria with a small entourage and sails for France. To his army, he leaves only a short proclamation, stating that the news from Europe has determined him to proceed to France and that he leaves the command of the army to General Kléber. General Kléber is not pleased by his sudden promotion and expresses his frustration. However, Kléber will never return to Europe, as he is stabbed to death in Cairo the following summer.
The remnants of the French army in Egypt surrender to the British in 1801, following defeat at the Battle of Alexandria. They are later repatriated by the British navy under the terms of a peace treaty. Napoleon’s expedition to Egypt was a costly failure for France. Its aims, which had always been vague, became impossible following the destruction of the French fleet at Aboukir. Though it has lived long in popular imagination, for every act of heroism or romantic legend, there was a moment of immense brutality and suffering.
The expedition did have one positive legacy. Shortly before he left for France, Napoleon was invited to inspect a stone slab that his troops had pulled from the rubble while building a fort near Rosetta. Dating to the second century BC, the slab was inscribed with a royal decree in Demotic, Ancient Greek, and Egyptian hieroglyphs. The French had to hand it over to the British under the terms of their surrender, which is why the ‘Rosetta Stone’ now sits in the British Museum. Two decades after its rediscovery, the Stone proved key to unlocking the lost language of Egyptian hieroglyphs and revolutionizing the study of Ancient Egypt. This and other discoveries by the French scholars spawned an entirely new discipline – Egyptology – that continues to fascinate us today.
Napoleon’s voyage across the Mediterranean takes 41 days and involves some close encounters with the Royal Navy. But his destiny was not to be thwarted a second time. En route, he makes his last visit to Corsica and the town of his birth before setting off for France to take the next step in his rise to power.
In this video, we’ve seen how Napoleon’s enemies used his actions at Jaffa to portray him negatively, while French artists chose to commemorate other parts of the story. Today, with social media and online news, it’s crucial to consider a range of opinions when reading the news and to be aware of potential bias. Ground News is a resource that helps make this process fast and easy. Ground News is a website and app designed to provide readers with a data-driven, objective way to read the news. You can subscribe today by visiting their website.
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Napoleon – A French military leader and emperor who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and led several successful campaigns during the Napoleonic Wars. – Napoleon’s strategies during the Battle of Austerlitz are studied extensively in military history courses.
Egypt – A country in North Africa with a rich history, known for its ancient civilization and monumental architecture such as the pyramids and the Sphinx. – The study of Egypt’s ancient civilization provides insights into early human societies and their development.
Ottoman – Relating to the Ottoman Empire, a powerful Turkish empire that lasted from the late 13th century until the end of World War I. – The Ottoman Empire’s influence on European politics and culture is a significant topic in world history.
Battle – A military fight between groups as part of a war or conflict. – The Battle of Hastings in 1066 was a pivotal moment in English history.
Siege – A
