In October 1799, after spending over a year in Egypt and Syria, Napoleon Bonaparte returned to France. As he traveled to Paris, he was celebrated as a hero, but France was in turmoil. The country faced rampant crime, high taxes, and economic struggles due to ongoing wars. Despite a recent military victory by General Masséna, France was still threatened by powerful enemies.
Many saw Napoleon as a potential savior for France, thanks to his military successes and effective propaganda. However, some government officials were wary of him, considering court-martialing him for abandoning his army and breaking quarantine laws. Napoleon, on the other hand, viewed the government with disdain, believing he could lead France more effectively.
Since 1795, France had been governed by the Directory, a five-member executive body. By 1799, it included figures like Paul Barras, known for his corruption, and Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès, a respected political thinker. The Directory was widely seen as corrupt and ineffective, and many powerful figures were plotting its downfall.
Upon returning to Paris, Napoleon stayed with his brother Lucien, a key political ally and president of the Council of 500. Despite a rocky reunion with his wife Josephine, they reconciled, and she became an important political ally through her social connections.
Paris was rife with rumors of plots from various political factions. Napoleon was approached by Maurice de Talleyrand, a former foreign minister, who suggested collaborating to overthrow the government. Sieyès, a member of the Directory, also wanted to replace the government with a new constitution and sought a military leader for the coup. Initially hesitant, Sieyès was convinced by Talleyrand to support Napoleon.
The coup was planned for November 7th, but was postponed by two days. On November 9th, Napoleon gathered military support, including General Lannes, and took command of the Paris military district. The Council of Elders, influenced by Sieyès’ allies, passed measures to support the coup, including moving the legislature to a safer location outside Paris.
On November 10th, Napoleon faced resistance from the councils. His attempts to address the Council of Elders were met with hostility, and he was physically attacked in the Council of 500. However, his brother Lucien helped rally military support by accusing the council of being influenced by foreign powers.
With military backing, the coup succeeded. The Directory was dissolved, and a new provisional government was established with Napoleon as one of three consuls. Despite being one of three leaders, Napoleon’s charisma and popularity quickly made him the dominant figure.
Napoleon’s swift rise from military leader to political power was complete. As First Consul, he would soon overshadow his colleagues and become the sole ruler of France, setting the stage for his future as Emperor.
Imagine you are a key figure during the Brumaire Coup. Choose a role such as Napoleon, Lucien Bonaparte, or Sieyès. Prepare a short speech or statement from your character’s perspective, explaining your motivations and goals during the coup. Present your speech to the class and engage in a discussion about the different perspectives and motivations of each character.
Form two groups and debate whether Napoleon’s actions during the Brumaire Coup were justified. One group will argue that he was a hero who saved France from chaos, while the other will argue that he was a usurper who seized power for personal gain. Use evidence from the article to support your arguments and be prepared to counter the opposing team’s points.
Design a political cartoon that depicts the events of the Brumaire Coup. Focus on illustrating the political climate, the role of the Directory, or Napoleon’s rise to power. Share your cartoon with the class and explain the symbolism and message behind your artwork.
Create a detailed timeline of the key events leading up to and during the Brumaire Coup. Include important dates, figures involved, and significant actions taken. Use visuals and brief descriptions to make your timeline engaging. Present your timeline to the class and discuss how each event contributed to Napoleon’s rise to power.
Research and analyze primary sources from the time of the Brumaire Coup, such as letters, speeches, or newspaper articles. Choose one source and write a brief analysis of its content, perspective, and significance. Share your findings with the class and discuss how these sources provide insight into the historical context and public perception of the coup.
**Sanitized Transcript:**
October 1799, after 500 days campaigning in Egypt and Syria, Napoleon has returned to France. With a small entourage, he travels north to Paris. Everywhere he goes, he is greeted by crowds, embraced by dignitaries, and celebrated as a conquering hero. However, such celebrations cannot hide that France is a country in crisis and despair. Banditry is so rampant that Napoleon’s own luggage is stolen en route. Prices are soaring, as are taxes; trade has been decimated by years of war and blockade. There is conscription, censorship, and corruption abroad. France once more faces a powerful coalition of enemies, and though General Masséna’s brilliant victory at Zurich offers some respite, France is not safe yet.
But in Bonaparte, many see a savior for the country. Thanks to his own propaganda, everyone has heard of his brilliant victories in Italy and Egypt. His name is celebrated in newspapers and plays, and the air rings with cries of “Hooray for Bonaparte! He will save the country.” Not everyone is thrilled by the General’s return. At the very top of the French government, some wonder if Bonaparte should not be court-martialed for abandoning his army in Egypt and now flouting France’s quarantine law. However, Napoleon does have a letter from the Directory ordering his return to France, though he acted before receiving it. There’s also concern that a move against such a hugely popular General could easily backfire.
For his part, Napoleon regards the government with contempt, a sentiment he shares in private. Over breakfast, he tells General Tibo that these men are bringing France down to the level of their own blundering. To Napoleon, it is self-evident that he would do a better job given all his glorious achievements in Italy and Egypt. Since 1795, France has been ruled by the Directory, a five-member executive whose members hold power for five years. In 1799, its members include Paul Barras, Napoleon’s first patron, who is infamously corrupt but a shrewd political operator; Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès, a former priest regarded as the leading political thinker in France; and three staunch Republicans appointed to the Directory just four months ago under outside pressure: Louis Gohier, a veteran Jacobin; Jean-François Reubell, a Jacobin general; and Pierre Roederer, a more moderate figure and ally of Sieyès.
The other major element of government, the legislature, is comprised of the Council of 500, which drafts laws, and the Council of Elders, which approves them. Members of both councils dress in extravagant costumes inspired by the ancient Republic of Rome. This government, particularly the Directory, is now widely regarded as corrupt, ineffective, and unfit to survive, and powerful men on the inside will play a leading role in its destruction.
On his return to Paris, Napoleon takes up residence in the home of the Bon family on Rue de la Victoire, which has been renamed in his honor. Given the unsettled political climate, he faces an uncertain and potentially dangerous few months in the capital. One man he can count on as a valuable guide is his younger brother, Lucien, who serves in the Council of 500 as the deputy for Corsica and has recently been elected its president. As such, he will be a key player in the weeks ahead.
But first comes a stormy reunion with his wife, Josephine, which quickly gives way to a passionate rapport. Both have been guilty of infidelities, but Napoleon is clearly still in love, and his earlier talk of divorce is quietly forgotten. Henceforth, Josephine will prove a faithful wife and, through her social connections, an important political ally.
Paris is awash with talk of plots and conspiracies, rumors of threats from the left—ex-Jacobins who oversaw the bloody days of the Terror—and from the right, secret royalists who want to turn back the clock. There are also those who seek a third option. Soon after his arrival in Paris, Napoleon receives a visit from France’s ex-foreign minister, Maurice de Talleyrand, a keen observer of the political landscape who had resigned from the government in July. Having worked with Napoleon in planning the Egyptian expedition, he now proposes they collaborate on another plan to replace the government of France.
Napoleon, disgusted by the current regime, immediately welcomes the idea. Talleyrand then reveals that a member of the Directory itself is working to bring down the regime. Sieyès, the country’s leading political thinker, has decided that the Directory must be cast aside and that France must have a new constitution, which he intends to write. He plans to sweep away the chaotic, unruly legislature and its weak, ineffectual executive to save the Republic. Radical reforms are needed, and an entirely new form of government is required. Sieyès already has the support of another director, Roger Ducos, and the president of the Council of Elders, Louis-Nicolas Davout. He even has the support of the president of the Council of 500, Lucien Bonaparte.
Minister of Police Joseph Fouché, who has eyes and ears across Paris, is also aware of their conspiracy but has agreed not to intervene. Sieyès seeks a military figurehead to keep the army on side and be wielded at the decisive moment. However, such a man is proving difficult to find. Sieyès’ first choice had been General Zuber, Napoleon’s talented subordinate, but he had been killed earlier that year. General MacDonald is sounded out but is too much the honest Republican for such scheming. General Moreau, who has led the Army of the Rhine with great success, declines the role, recommending Bonaparte instead.
Sieyès does not like Napoleon; his ambition is too obvious. It is Talleyrand who persuades Sieyès that they have found their sword. On the 23rd of October, Napoleon and Sieyès meet for the first time. They agree that the Republic is in grave peril from enemies within and without, and that the Directory cannot meet the challenge. Within a week, they agree to launch a coup to overthrow the government of France.
The conspirators plan their coup for the 7th of November, a risky operation that will take two days during which any number of things could go wrong. Many of the plotters take precautions; Sieyès carries a briefcase stuffed with cash for a quick getaway. Fouché has drafted orders for Napoleon’s arrest in case he needs to switch sides. Napoleon sleeps with two loaded pistols by his bed. At the last minute, there’s a 48-hour postponement, so instead that night, Bonaparte dines at General Bernadotte’s apartment. They are joined by Generals Moreau and Jourdan. He wants the support of these influential generals for his coup. Moreau agrees to help; Jourdan promises not to interfere, but Bernadotte is outraged and warns Napoleon that he’ll be guillotined.
On the 9th of November, in the crisp hours before dawn, Napoleon meets around 60 officers that he has invited to his house. He informs them that he must act to save the Republic and asks for their support. They affirm their loyalty with oaths of allegiance. The most important man to convince is General Lannes, the no-nonsense military commander of Paris. Napoleon presents Lannes with the sword he wore at the Battle of the Pyramids as a mark of his esteem, and the general is won over.
At 7:00 a.m., the Council of Elders meets in an unscheduled early session at the Tuileries Palace. Only Sieyès’ allies have been invited, so without opposition, they quickly pass two measures: first, Napoleon is to be given immediate command of the Paris military district, using the pretext of a non-existent Jacobin plot; second, tomorrow the legislature will move from its usual meeting place in the center of Paris to the Château de Saint-Cloud, five miles west outside the city. This, the plotters tell the council, is for their own safety, as the Paris mob is famed for its unpredictable and violent political interventions. The move is, of course, to protect the conspirators themselves from such an event.
At 10:00 a.m., Napoleon arrives at the Tuileries. He speaks to the Council of Elders, reassures them that the trusted generals Lannes and Berthier are by his side, and concludes, “We want a Republic founded upon true liberty, on civil liberty, on national representation. We will have it, I swear.” Meanwhile, that morning at the Luxembourg Palace, where the five directors reside, Sieyès and Ducos announce their resignation and urge Barras and Moulins to follow suit. Barras decides to take a long bath and will not be disturbed, perhaps mulling his options or waiting for an offer. When it comes, it is from Talleyrand, who understands him best. With the help of an enormous bribe and the reassurance that he will keep all his estates, Barras agrees to resign.
With the resignation of three directors, the executive is constitutionally defunct. The conspirators have what they want: a power vacuum to which they will propose a solution the next day at Château de Saint-Cloud. It will be a day on which the future of France hinges. That evening, as Napoleon rides through the Place de la Concorde, where so many had died under the guillotine, he turns to his secretary and says, “Tomorrow, either we will sleep at the Luxembourg or we’ll end up here.”
Napoleon rises at 4:00 a.m. and rides to Saint-Cloud. There he meets Murat, newly promoted to General of Division, whose 6,000 troops surround the area. Officially, they are there to guard the council members, but as deputies arrive for the day’s session, the heavy military presence is impossible to miss. There are long delays; benches have to be found for the chambers. Council members have time to mingle and discuss the many swirling rumors. This time, the Jacobin deputies are present and are not happy at being excluded from the previous day’s meeting.
When the councils finally begin their sessions at 1:00 p.m., the mood is raucous. The sudden resignation of the directors, the presence of so many troops, and the claims of a Jacobin plot create much to discuss. The plotters had hoped for a quick vote to establish a new provisional government, but the presidents of both councils struggle to take charge. Hours pass, and Napoleon loses patience. At 4:00 p.m., he bursts into the Council of Elders. As he begins to speak, he is heckled and derided. Napoleon is thrown off balance; he rambles, mutters, then hesitates. When a deputy interrupts, asking about the Constitution, Napoleon flings back, “You yourselves annihilated it!” There is uproar.
Napoleon continues, demanding action from the council. Anyone who speaks against him, he strongly implies, has been paid by the British. To any such deputy, he warns, “May the lightning of war crush him instantaneously. Remember that I walk accompanied by the god of war and by the god of fortune.” These ill-chosen words seem to confirm the assembly’s very worst suspicions. By some accounts, Napoleon has to be dragged from the chamber by his staff, shouting, “You are scoundrels! I will have you shot if you don’t obey me!”
Napoleon is shaken but not defeated. Within minutes, he storms down the corridor into the Council of 500, where the president, his brother, has lost all semblance of control. The mood here is of even greater defiance. The deputies have spent the morning swearing oaths of loyalty to the Constitution, and when Napoleon arrives flanked by grenadiers, he receives a torrent of abuse: “Down with the tyrant!” they cry. “Outlaw! Caesar! Cromwell!” As the crowd presses in, he is grabbed, jostled, even punched. His grenadiers rush in to extricate Napoleon from the scaffold, hauling him clear and dragging him into the courtyard outside.
Napoleon is rattled and bloodied. He seems unsure what to do. His old comrade General Moreau, now a council member, comes out to see him. “You’re in deep water now,” Moreau tells him. Napoleon regains his composure. “It was worse at Toulon,” he replies. Nevertheless, the coup is on the brink of disaster. If the council declares Napoleon an outlaw, it could mean a firing squad or a swift trip to the guillotine. But the riotous disorder has played into his hands. He is the military commander of Paris.
When he hears that Jacobin deputies are keeping his brother Lucien in the chamber against his will, grenadiers are sent to bring him out. Napoleon attempts to rally troops for a decisive intervention. News of his manhandling by the deputies outrages his old comrades; they are eager to go. But the Legislative Guard, the 400 troops charged with protecting the council, are not convinced. It is Lucien who seizes the moment. He mounts a horse and announces, “Citizens! Soldiers! The great majority of the council is at this moment being terrorized by a handful of deputies armed with daggers. These brigands are doubtless in English pay! I declare to you that these madmen have made themselves outlaws by their assaults upon the liberty of this council.”
Then he draws a sword and points it at Napoleon’s chest. “I swear that I will stab my own brother to the heart if he ever makes an assault on the liberty of Frenchmen!” The doubters are won over. A signal is given; with bayonets fixed, troops flood into the Council of 500 with General Murat at their head. “Citizens, you are dissolved!” he shouts, then to his men, “Get this damn rabble out of here!” The deputies scatter; by some accounts, they jump out of windows, leaving their robes and hats strewn across the gardens.
Certainly, the conspirators had hoped to avoid the use of troops, but it had always been a backup plan—one that turned out to be desperately needed. Later that evening, a few deputies are rounded up to form a rump Council of 500, joined by the similarly cowed Council of Elders. They approve the measures suggested to them: the dissolution of the Directory, the adjournment of both councils for four months (though they will never meet again), and the appointment of three provisional consuls, a term borrowed from the Roman Republic: Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès, Pierre Roederer, and General Napoleon Bonaparte.
Three years and eight months since he took command of the Army of Italy, Napoleon has risen to the summit of political power in France. He will now be one of three men in charge of drafting a new constitution for the Republic, but through his brilliance, energy, and immense popularity, he will soon overshadow his two colleagues. Only one man will emerge to rule France: the First Consul, Napoleon Bonaparte.
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Napoleon – A French military leader and emperor who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and led several successful campaigns during the Revolutionary Wars. – Napoleon’s strategic brilliance was evident in his ability to consolidate power and expand the French Empire across Europe.
France – A country in Western Europe that played a significant role in world history, particularly during the French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars. – The social and political upheaval in France during the late 18th century had a profound impact on the course of European history.
Government – The system or group of people governing an organized community, often a state, and responsible for making and enforcing laws. – The French Revolution led to the overthrow of the monarchy and the establishment of a new form of government.
Directory – The government body that ruled France from 1795 to 1799, following the fall of the Committee of Public Safety and preceding the rise of Napoleon. – The Directory was characterized by political instability and economic challenges, paving the way for Napoleon’s rise to power.
Coup – A sudden, violent, and illegal seizure of power from a government, often executed by a small group. – Napoleon’s coup d’état in 1799 marked the end of the Directory and the beginning of his rule as First Consul of France.
Military – Relating to the armed forces or to soldiers, arms, or war. – Napoleon’s military campaigns were instrumental in expanding French influence across Europe during the early 19th century.
Power – The ability or capacity to influence or control the behavior of people or the course of events. – The concentration of power in the hands of a single ruler can lead to both stability and the risk of authoritarianism.
Politics – The activities associated with the governance of a country or area, especially the debate between parties having power. – The politics of the French Revolution were marked by intense debate and conflict over the future direction of the nation.
Allies – Nations or groups that join together for a common purpose, often in a military or political context. – During the Napoleonic Wars, France faced a coalition of allies determined to curb its expansionist ambitions.
Corruption – The abuse of entrusted power for private gain, often undermining the integrity of political or economic systems. – The corruption within the Directory government contributed to its downfall and the rise of Napoleon’s authoritarian regime.
