The History of the Roman Republic (All Parts) – 753 BC – 27 BC

The story of the founding of Rome is a tale often recounted by the Romans as part of their ancient city’s earliest history. According to legend, Rome was founded on April 22, 753 BC, by twin brothers Romulus and Remus. The boys were the sons of Rea Silvia, a daughter of King Numor of Alba Longa, who was impregnated by the God of War, Mars. When the twins were born, King Numor’s younger brother, who had previously deposed the king, attempted to have the boys murdered by drowning them in the Tiber River to eliminate any rivals to the throne. However, the infants survived and eventually washed ashore near Palatine Hill. Here, the legend states that they were suckled by a she-wolf and later found by Faustulus, a local shepherd. He and his wife took the boys in, and as they grew older, Romulus and Remus became leaders of a group of shepherd warriors.

Upon discovering their true lineage and valid claim to Alba Longa, the twins launched an attack on the city, assassinating their great-uncle and restoring their grandfather to the throne. They then decided to found their own city at the site where they had been suckled by the she-wolf. However, a conflict between the brothers led to Romulus murdering Remus. Romulus then founded the city of Rome, naming it after himself.

To address the challenge of populating his new town, which had no women, Romulus devised a plan to invite the neighboring Sabines to a festival, during which he had their women kidnapped. This action triggered armed conflict between the new Romans and the Sabines, but the abducted women intervened, insisting on mediating a peace treaty. This treaty allowed for the merging of the two kingdoms, making both Romulus and the Sabine King Titus Tatius co-rulers.

To further grow Rome, Romulus invited exiles and fugitives to seek asylum in his kingdom. By the time King Titus died without an heir, Romulus became the sole monarch of the city. After Romulus’s death, there would be six more kings before the kingdom transitioned into a republic.

This narrative is just one theory regarding the founding of Rome. Many historians have questioned this somewhat fantastical tale, and alternative hypotheses have emerged. For instance, Strabo, a Greek historian, wrote of a different account claiming that an Arcadian colony first occupied what would become Rome, founded by a Greek named Iander. Roman historian Lucius Coelius Antipater also supported this theory. Another belief suggests that Rome was founded by Romos, a son of King Odus, which would imply that the Romans had Greek ancestry—a notion that may have become unfavorable as tensions with the Greeks grew.

Martin P. Nelson, a Swedish scholar, posits that this theory may have once been the primary narrative of Rome’s origin, but as the idea of Greek ancestry became more embarrassing for the Romans, they likely altered the story, changing Romos to the native name Romulus. However, the name Romos, which later evolved into Remus, was never entirely forgotten, contributing to the story of two founders rather than one.

In his satire, the Caesars, Emperor Julian is said to have had Alexander the Great remark to the Romans, “I am aware that you Romans are yourselves descended from the Greeks.” Another possibility is that the Trojan prince Aeneas founded Rome, as described by Virgil in his epic, the Aeneid. Both Emperor Augustus and Julius Caesar are said to have been descendants of Prince Aeneas.

Historically, regardless of how Rome was truly founded, it is believed that there were seven kings during the initial era of establishment, beginning with Romulus and ending with the Etruscan kings. The final three monarchs of this civilization were Priscus, Tullus, and Superbus. A problem arises with the limited number of kings; if only seven kings reigned over 243 years, that would average roughly 35 years per monarch, a claim strongly discredited by modern historians. While it is possible that Rome could have been ruled by only seven kings in its early years, there is no way to prove this unlikely assertion due to a lack of contemporary evidence.

When the Gauls sacked Rome during the Battle of the Alia in the fourth century BC, they destroyed a significant amount of Rome’s existing records, and many others became lost or damaged over the following years. One way or another, Rome’s foundation as a monarchy came to an end in 509 BC when the Romans finally regained control from the Etruscan people who had been ruling over them for the past three reigns. According to the story, Lucius Tarquinus Superbus, the last king, was deposed after his son Sextus Tarquin committed a heinous crime against Lucretia, a noblewoman, resulting in her death. Lucretia’s father, husband, and even the king’s nephew united with the goal of punishing the royal family by overthrowing the king. Both the Roman military and Senate supported this coup. Not only would King Tarquinus be overthrown, but the kingship itself would be abolished by the Senate, with most of his duties transferred to two elected consuls. Each consul would act as a check on the other, with each term lasting only one year and any consul being subject to the law if they abused their power while in office.

The first two consuls were Brutus and Collatinus, although the latter was a relative of the deposed king and was eventually forced to resign and go into exile. Publius Valerius Publicola then took Collatinus’s place as the second consul. King Tarquinus made several attempts to regain his throne and reestablish the Roman monarchy, such as with the Tarquinian conspiracy the same year of his removal and two battles within the Roman-Etruscan wars. Shortly after, the former king proved disappointingly unsuccessful, and the Republic remained.

While the Republic may have been an improvement over the monarchy, it was still not a democracy. The Senate, composed solely of aristocrats or patricians, was responsible for voting in each consul for every term, and the lower classes, known as the plebeians, had no power to challenge or influence decisions made by the Senate. Additionally, notable efforts were made to separate and distinguish the varying levels of society; marriage between patricians and plebeians was strictly forbidden.

As the Republic aged and developed, the plebeians gradually began to gain more influence and power, eventually becoming eligible for the position of consul. However, the patricians maintained their overall authority through their wealth.

Another curious feature of the early Roman Republic was how it dealt with emergencies. In the case of a military emergency, the Senate and consuls had the ability to elect a temporary dictator who would assume complete authority over Rome during the crisis. This position was quite dangerous, as it granted the dictator unchecked control in an already chaotic time. However, for a plebeian named Cincinnatus, the concept worked as intended. The aristocrats brought Cincinnatus from his farm during a military emergency that required a dictator to lead the troops. After just 15 days, Cincinnatus led the Romans to victory and voluntarily stepped down from his temporary position, returning to his farm.

By 449 BC, the Roman Republic had established its first set of written laws known as the Twelve Tables. Contrary to the earlier structure of the Republic, these laws aimed to make every citizen equal under the law. Finally, after refining the very foundations of the new Republic, Rome could move on to another goal: expansion.

After gradually overcoming its neighboring tribes, including the Sabines, one of the first major conflicts the young Republic faced was the Battle of Lake Regillus at the start of the fifth century BC. The Latin League and the Romans met at Lake Regillus, as Rome’s new dictator at the time, Aulus Postumius Albus, sought to defeat the remaining threat to Rome’s growing authority. As the troops neared the battlefield, another nearby tribe known as the Volsci attempted to gather additional fighters to assist the Latin League, but they were unable to arrive in time due to the speed with which the Romans launched their campaign.

The battle soon commenced, with Albus leading the infantry and Titus Aebutius Helva at his side as the master of the horse, facing off against the Latin leaders Octavius Mamilius and Lucius Tarquinus Superbus, the previously ousted final Roman king. This latter participant is said to have played a significant role in the passion with which the Romans fought, given the high level of animosity between the people and their deposed ruler. As the clash began, leaders on both sides quickly engaged in combat, with both Mamilius and Albus sustaining injuries from one another. The Roman cavalry dismounted and took the fight to the ground, forcing the Latins to retreat. The Romans managed to capture their camp, leading to the Latin forces fleeing the battlefield and leaving the Romans as clear victors.

Despite this initial success, it would not be the last time the Latins challenged Rome. The Battle of Mount Algidus was fought between Rome and a neighboring Latin tribe called the Aequians. This conflict arose in 458 BC after the Aequians continuously attacked Rome and the surrounding territories, breaking the truce between the Tusculans and Aequians. The Aequians invaded Tusculum once more, prompting Rome to leap into action to assist its ally. The Romans surrounded the Aequians and attacked with two separate armies, leading to the tribe’s defeat at Mount Algidus. Just over a decade later, these armies would clash again, now joined by the Volsci tribe, as the Latins continued to pose a threat to the Romans.

Initially, it appeared that the Latins might overpower the Romans this time, as they captured their base camp and inflicted roughly 6,000 Roman casualties. However, the Romans managed to change the tide and forced the Latins into retreat by splitting their troops into two groups and hitting the enemy forces from multiple sides, as they had done in the previous battle. This ultimately led to a significant triumph for Rome and ensured the Republic’s superiority over the Aequians and the rest of its immediate neighbors.

By this point, the Roman Republic’s main goals had been to establish its foundation in terms of political structure and basic systems for functioning, as well as consolidating its power at home and proving its dominion over the surrounding Latin cities and tribes. However, these were only the first steps in building a powerful Republic. Rome needed to focus on growth and expansion, which was often easier said than done. Rome wasn’t alone in wanting to gain new territory, and this meant that the young Republic had to go on the offensive while also being defensive, especially regarding the Celts or Gauls.

In 390 BC, the rivalry between the growing Roman Republic and the Gallic tribes reached its peak. The Gauls had already established themselves in the Po Valley by the beginning of the fourth century BC, inching closer to Rome and were soon invited into the Etruscan town of Clusium. The Gallic tribe known as the Senones, led by their king Brennus, accepted the invitation from the ruler of Clusium, who hoped to take revenge on a man named Lumio, who had allegedly slept with his wife. After the Senones arrived in Clusium, things turned sour, and the ruler sent a request to the Romans for help in mediating the situation.

Rome was willing to assist and sent three ambassadors to negotiate with the Gauls. Upon arrival, the Romans worked to deter any type of attack against Clusium and asked the Senones to come to the table for peace negotiations. Rome asserted that in the case of a Gallic attack on the town, they would swiftly declare war in return and protect their allies. Brennus countered that he would not order an attack on Clusium if the Romans would hand over some of their territories to the Senones. Negotiations became heated, and an argument broke out, which quickly escalated into a full-blown brawl between the two sides. The Roman ambassadors, despite strict rules requiring them to remain neutral, inserted themselves into the fight, with one even going so far as to slay a Senone chief. The Romans had undoubtedly crossed a line, and the Gauls were no longer willing to negotiate.

Once the Gauls decided what to do in reaction to the Roman attack, Brennus sent his own representatives to Rome, sternly demanding that the three Roman ambassadors be handed over to the Senones. Given the powerful status of the ambassadors, all members of the influential Fabii family, the Senate felt trapped. They were too pressed to do anything that might harm the Fabii family, yet they were also unwilling to be the reason the Gauls attacked Rome. In an attempt to shift the blame and pressure off themselves, the Senate tossed the issue to the people, who predictably favored their own. The Senones were outraged by the fact that the Roman ambassadors would go unpunished for their violation and decided to take matters into their own hands.

After Brennus’s ambassadors returned to him with the news, the Senones quickly readied their army for war. As the Gauls marched through the surrounding cities on their way to Rome, startled citizens either fled or came to defend their towns, but the Senones made it clear that their only target was Rome. When the Gauls reached the Alia River near Rome, the Romans were completely caught off guard. They had not anticipated the swift incursion and were slow to assemble a defensive army. The troops had to prepare so quickly that they failed to even set up a camp and quickly formed a long, thin line, which created a weak defense.

They did have an extra reserve unit, which they placed on a hill, but Brennus was confused by this and thought these troops were instead intended to ambush him and his men, so he went straight for them instead of the main Roman force. This shocked the Romans even more; many soldiers retreated to the nearby city of Veii, while others fled into Rome, and the rest were struck down by the Senones as they continued the battle. When all was finished, the Gauls were so taken aback by how easy their victory had been that they suspected the Romans might be planning a new ambush. When nothing happened, Brennus regrouped his men and continued the march to Rome.

Another shock hit the Gauls when they reached the city gates, which were open and completely unguarded. Unbeknownst to the Senones, the Roman troops who had fled to Veii during the Battle of the Alia had not warned the rest of Rome about the clash, and because they had not returned, the Roman people assumed those who had retreated to the capital were the only survivors from the battle, leading to a mostly evacuated city. The men of military age and ability were sent to defend Capitoline Hill, while many citizens dispersed. The Senones began the sack and seizure of Rome.

While the sack raged on, back in Veii, the remaining Roman troops began to come together with a plan to return to their capital. Initially, the soldiers picked a centurion named Quintus Caedicius as their leader, but he soon decided that the formerly banished Marcus Furius Camillus would make a better commander for their return to Rome. This required a messenger to be sent to Rome first, where he could speak to some of the Senate on Capitoline Hill and try to have Camillus’s exile reversed. Although the messenger, Cominius Pontius, managed to convince the Senate to approve Camillus’s return as Rome’s leader, he may have unintentionally led the Senones right to the Romans on Capitoline Hill.

Whether by luck or a trail left by Pontius, the Senones managed to scale the hill and sneak up on the Roman men, despite the fact that there were guards on duty who should have noticed them coming. Instead, it was the geese that were first startled by the Senone intruders, waking the Roman troops. One former consul, Marcus Manlius Capitolinus, sprang into action and shoved one of the Gauls off the side of the cliff, causing more of the Senone soldiers who were still on their way up to fall as well. A quick scuffle followed, but it was swiftly ended with the Romans successfully fighting off their attackers. Still, this did not end the Senone occupation of Rome, and the Romans now faced the task of waiting until Camillus could arrive with an additional army from Veii.

The only problem was that neither the Romans nor the Senones could last much longer if the occupation continued; both were suffering from famine, and the Senones were also plagued by disease and hardship. Due to these new challenges, the Senones decided to ask the Romans for peace negotiations and considered the idea of offering a paid ransom for the city. Initially, the Romans said no because they were still expecting Camillus to arrive with more men, but it wasn’t long before they changed their minds due to increasing starvation. Negotiations began, resulting in an agreement for the Romans to pay the Senones 1,000 pounds of gold in exchange for their withdrawal from the city.

There are conflicting stories about whether the Senones used dishonest scales or knives to weigh the gold. According to one writer named Livy, when accused of cheating the scales, Brennus threw his sword on the scale and uttered the words “Vae victis,” or “woe to the vanquished.” Regardless, the ransom would not actually be paid. Camillus finally arrived with his fresh army and instructed the Romans not to hand over the gold. Brennus argued that an agreement had already been made, but Camillus refused to accept this answer, justifying his stance by stating that he had been made the highest-ranking official in Rome and that the deal had not been struck with him. Instead, Camillus called the Gauls into combat against his men, and the starving and ill Senones were effortlessly routed by the new Roman troops. Rome was now free, not through ransom but by honorable military victory.

After the Senones left Rome, the triumphant Republic was instantly thrown into a new war with the neighboring Latin tribes. This conflict would continue for over three decades as Rome worked tirelessly to remain a powerful and growing entity. Around 358 BC, a peace was made with the Latin League due to an overwhelming fear of a new Gallic war brewing, but the often violent disputes with the Gauls, Etruscans, and even Greeks would carry on for a few more decades.

In 340 BC, a new Latin war broke out despite peace having been made less than 20 years prior. This conflict was relatively short-lived and ended with decisive Roman dominance. In 327 BC, the Second Samnite War erupted between the Romans and Samnites, with no predictable victor for some time. Finally, in 305 BC, the Romans took the upper hand at the Battle of Banam, and the war came to a close by the next year when most of the Samnites’ land was annexed by Rome.

In an attempt to swiftly secure and consolidate this new claim to the territory, Rome attempted to set up colonies on the captured lands, but the locals were not easily subdued. In 298 BC, the Samnites rebelled against the new colonial authority, triggering another war. The Battle of Pap