History’s first empire emerged from a challenging environment—a hot, arid landscape devoid of rainfall to sustain crops and lacking trees or stones for construction. Despite these harsh conditions, its people built the world’s first cities, complete with monumental architecture and large populations, using nothing but mud. This was the Sumerian civilization, located in the southern part of modern Iraq, in a region known as Mesopotamia, which means “between two rivers”—the Tigris and the Euphrates.
Around 5000 BCE, the early Sumerians developed irrigation channels, dams, and reservoirs to redirect river water, transforming previously barren land into fertile agricultural fields. While similar agricultural communities were emerging globally, the Sumerians were pioneers in taking the next step. They used clay bricks made from river mud to construct multi-storied homes and temples, and they invented the potter’s wheel, which turned mud into household goods and tools. These innovations led to the creation of the world’s first cities, likely around 4500 BCE.
At the pinnacle of Sumerian society were priests and priestesses, regarded as nobility, followed by merchants, craftspeople, farmers, and enslaved individuals. The Sumerian empire was composed of distinct city-states that functioned like small nations. These city-states were loosely connected by language and spiritual beliefs but lacked centralized control. The earliest cities included Uruk, Ur, and Eridu, and eventually, there were a dozen such cities. Each city had a king who acted as both a priest and a ruler, and they sometimes engaged in conflicts to expand their territories.
Each Sumerian city was dedicated to a patron deity, considered the city’s founder. The most significant building in the city was the ziggurat, a temple designed as a stepped pyramid, serving as the home of the patron god. Around 3200 BCE, the Sumerians began to extend their influence. The potter’s wheel was adapted for use on chariots and wagons, and they constructed boats from reeds and date palm leaves, with linen sails that enabled them to travel vast distances by river and sea.
To compensate for scarce resources, the Sumerians established a trade network with emerging kingdoms in Egypt, Anatolia, and Ethiopia, importing gold, silver, lapis lazuli, and cedar wood. Trade unexpectedly spurred the invention of the world’s first writing system. Initially, it was a system of accounting for Sumerian merchants conducting business with foreign traders. Over a few centuries, this early pictogram system evolved into cuneiform script.
The Sumerians were also responsible for drafting the first written laws and creating the first school system, designed to teach the craft of writing. They pioneered less glamorous innovations like bureaucracy and taxes. In these schools, scribes studied from dawn to dusk, from childhood into adulthood, learning accounting, mathematics, and copying literary works—hymns, myths, proverbs, animal fables, magic spells, and the first epics on clay tablets. Some of these tablets recounted the story of Gilgamesh, a king of Uruk who became the subject of mythical tales.
By the third millennium BCE, Sumer was no longer the sole empire in Mesopotamia. Nomadic tribes from the north and east began to infiltrate the region. Some newcomers admired the Sumerians, adopting their lifestyle and using the cuneiform script for their languages. In 2300 BCE, the Akkadian king Sargon conquered the Sumerian city-states. However, Sargon respected Sumerian culture, allowing Akkadians and Sumerians to coexist for centuries. Other invading groups focused solely on looting and destruction. Despite the spread of Sumerian culture, continuous invasions led to the decline of the Sumerian people by 1750 BCE.
Although Sumer disappeared into the desert sands, not to be rediscovered until the 19th century, its culture endured for millennia—first through the Akkadians, then the Assyrians, and later the Babylonians. The Babylonians passed Sumerian inventions and traditions along to Hebrew, Greek, and Roman cultures, some of which persist to this day.
Using clay or modeling materials, build a model of a Sumerian city-state. Include key features such as the ziggurat, irrigation channels, and city walls. Label each part and explain its significance in Sumerian society.
Draw a map showing the trade routes used by the Sumerians. Mark the locations of Sumerian city-states and their trading partners, such as Egypt and Anatolia. Use arrows to indicate the direction of trade and list the goods exchanged.
Create your own cuneiform tablet using clay and a stylus. Write a simple message or record a trade transaction. Research the cuneiform script to ensure your writing is accurate. Share your tablet with the class and explain what it says.
In groups, role-play different members of Sumerian society, such as a priest, merchant, farmer, or scribe. Create a short skit that shows a typical day for your character. Include details about their daily activities and interactions with others.
Choose one Sumerian innovation, such as the potter’s wheel, irrigation, or the first schools. Research how it was developed and its impact on Sumerian society. Create a presentation to share your findings with the class, including visuals or demonstrations if possible.
Sumer – Sumer was one of the earliest known civilizations, located in southern Mesopotamia, famous for its advancements in writing, architecture, and governance. – The Sumerians created one of the first writing systems called cuneiform, which helped them keep records of their trade and agriculture.
Empire – An empire is a large political unit that rules over a vast territory and diverse peoples, often through conquest or colonization. – The Roman Empire expanded across Europe, North Africa, and parts of Asia, influencing many cultures and societies.
Agriculture – Agriculture is the practice of cultivating soil, growing crops, and raising animals for food, clothing, and other products. – The development of agriculture allowed ancient civilizations to settle in one place and build complex societies.
City-states – City-states are independent cities that have their own governments and are not part of a larger state, often controlling surrounding territories. – In ancient Greece, city-states like Athens and Sparta had their own laws and customs, leading to unique cultures.
Trade – Trade is the exchange of goods and services between people or countries, which can help spread ideas and culture. – The Silk Road was an important trade route that connected the East and West, allowing for the exchange of silk, spices, and knowledge.
Writing – Writing is a system of marking language in a visual form, which allows people to record information, communicate, and share stories. – The invention of writing in ancient civilizations like Egypt and Mesopotamia was crucial for keeping historical records.
Culture – Culture refers to the beliefs, customs, arts, and social behaviors of a particular group of people. – The rich culture of the Maya included impressive pyramids, a complex calendar, and unique art forms.
Innovations – Innovations are new ideas, methods, or products that improve existing technologies or ways of doing things. – The invention of the wheel was one of the most significant innovations in ancient history, transforming transportation and trade.
Religion – Religion is a system of beliefs and practices often centered around the worship of a higher power or deity. – Ancient Egyptians practiced a polytheistic religion, believing in many gods who controlled different aspects of life and nature.
Architecture – Architecture is the art and science of designing and constructing buildings and other structures. – The impressive architecture of the Parthenon in Athens showcases the advanced building techniques of ancient Greece.
