ClassX Video Lessons Youtube Channel Knowledgia The sick man of Europe – History of the Ottoman Empire (1800 – 1900)
The 19th century was a tumultuous period for the Ottoman Empire, which found itself on the defensive and struggling to maintain its power. This era marked a significant decline for the empire, as it faced numerous challenges and had to form alliances with unexpected nations to avoid collapse. Each sultan who ascended the throne during this time had to navigate a rapidly changing political landscape.
As the 19th century began, Salim III was the sultan of the Ottoman Empire. During his reign, Napoleon Bonaparte and his French forces occupied Egypt, claiming to liberate it from Ottoman control. However, internal issues in France forced Napoleon to withdraw by 1801, allowing Salim some relief. Despite this, Salim respected Napoleon and faced diplomatic pressure from both France and Russia, who sought to influence the empire’s alliances.
Salim attempted to balance these pressures but ultimately maintained a defensive alliance with Russia until 1806. This decision led to conflict with Russia, as Salim’s reforms and actions in Moldavia and Wallachia angered the Russians. Internally, Salim faced rebellion from his Janissary and Yamak troops, leading to his eventual ousting and imprisonment in 1807.
Following Salim’s downfall, Mustafa IV briefly took the throne but was soon replaced by Mahmud II in 1808. Mahmud aimed to continue his brother’s westernization reforms but was immediately confronted with ongoing wars. The conflict with Russia ended in 1812 with the Treaty of Bucharest, resulting in territorial losses for the Ottomans.
The Balkans were also in turmoil, with Serbia and Greece seeking autonomy. The Greek War of Independence began in 1821, and despite initial Ottoman successes, an alliance of Britain, France, and Russia defeated the Ottoman-Egyptian forces in 1827. Mahmud declared war on Russia, leading to another Russo-Turkish war from 1828 to 1829, which ended with the Ottomans recognizing Greek independence.
Mahmud II initiated the Tanzimat reforms to modernize the empire, but he died in 1839 before seeing their full impact. His successor, Abdul Mejid I, continued these reforms, focusing on equal treatment for all citizens and modernizing the administration. The Oriental Crisis of 1840 saw the Ottoman Empire, with European support, successfully counter Egyptian ambitions.
The Crimean War (1853-1856) further involved the Ottomans in European conflicts, with Britain and France supporting them against Russia. The war concluded with the Treaty of Paris, and Abdul Mejid issued the Hatt-i Humayun, promoting equality among the empire’s diverse populations.
Abdul Aziz succeeded Abdul Mejid and continued the reform efforts, but the empire faced increasing challenges. The Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878 resulted in significant territorial losses and the independence of several Balkan states. The Congress of Berlin in 1878 formalized these changes, further weakening the Ottoman hold on the region.
Amidst internal strife, Abdul Hamid II took the throne and introduced the first Ottoman constitution in 1876, although it was short-lived. The empire sought alliances with Germany as European powers expanded their influence in the region. The Greco-Turkish War of 1897 ended with a temporary Ottoman victory, but unrest in the Balkans and other regions continued to challenge the empire’s stability.
As the 19th century drew to a close, the Ottoman Empire was increasingly on the defensive, struggling to maintain its power and territory. The period was marked by significant reforms, wars, and shifting alliances, setting the stage for further decline in the years to come. The empire’s efforts to modernize and adapt to a changing world were met with varying degrees of success, but the challenges it faced were immense and complex.
Engage in a role-playing debate where you represent different European powers or Ottoman factions. Discuss and negotiate alliances and conflicts from the perspective of your assigned role. This will help you understand the complex diplomatic landscape of the 19th-century Ottoman Empire.
Conduct research on the Tanzimat reforms and present your findings to the class. Focus on the impact of these reforms on the Ottoman Empire’s administration and society. This activity will deepen your understanding of the empire’s modernization efforts.
Analyze historical maps to track the territorial changes of the Ottoman Empire throughout the 19th century. Identify key regions lost or gained and discuss the geopolitical implications. This will enhance your comprehension of the empire’s territorial dynamics.
Watch a documentary on the Crimean War and its significance for the Ottoman Empire. After the screening, participate in a discussion about the war’s outcomes and its impact on European-Ottoman relations. This will provide a visual and narrative context to the historical events.
Write a diary entry from the perspective of a citizen living in the Ottoman Empire during the 19th century. Reflect on the social, political, and economic changes occurring around you. This creative exercise will help you empathize with the experiences of individuals during this period.
Here’s a sanitized version of the provided transcript:
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The 19th century in the Ottoman Empire pushed the Turks into a position of defensiveness and required the centuries-old conquering power to make alliances with unexpected nations in order to prevent collapse. Without a doubt, the 1800s marked a rapid decline for the Ottoman Empire, facing challenge after challenge with each sultan who took the throne over the next 100 years.
As the new century approached, Salim III was still the sultan of the empire. Recently, Napoleon and his French troops had taken power in Egypt, styling themselves as liberators from the Ottoman Empire. However, constant revolts and discord back home in France forced Napoleon to make a subtle retreat before causing too much damage to the Ottomans. By 1801, the French officially withdrew from the territory, allowing Salim a sigh of relief, although the Ottoman sultan had a strong respect for Napoleon himself.
In 1804, France began attempting to win over Salim’s support, while Russia wanted to keep the Ottomans leaning towards their side. Napoleon even wrote to Sultan Salim, referring to him as “most high and invincible prince” and imploring him to explain why he would allow the Russians to influence his decisions. The Frenchman also noted that he recognized Salim’s title of emperor, suggesting that the sultan should reciprocate. He pointed out that the Russians had fifteen thousand men at Corfu, implying that those troops were there to oppose the Turks, not the French.
Salim wished to grant Napoleon the favor but was too intimidated by the military might of the Russian-British alliance facing the French. Ultimately, the Ottomans agreed to maintain a defensive alliance with Russia until 1806, at which point war broke out between the empires once again. The Russians were outraged by Salim’s decision to depose his vassal states and Russophile governors in Moldavia and Wallachia. Meanwhile, within the empire, Salim faced rebellion from his Janissary and Yamak troops due to his new reformist policies. The sultan was eventually ousted from the throne and imprisoned in 1807.
Mustafa IV was assigned as Salim’s successor, and an attempt was made by reformist supporters to reinstate Salim as sultan, but Mustafa ordered his assassination before anything could be done. The new sultan’s efforts to undo his predecessor’s reforms were cut short by Salim’s brother, Mahmud II, whose supporters quickly deposed Mustafa in July of 1808 and crowned Muhammad in his place. Sultan Muhammad II wished to continue the westernization reforms of his brother but was first faced with more pressing matters. The war with Russia only ended in 1812 with the Treaty of Bucharest, forcing the Ottomans to cede Bessarabia (the eastern part of Moldova) to the Russians after facing demoralizing losses.
The Serbian fight for autonomy shook the Balkans in 1815, and the Greeks were moving in the same direction. In 1821, Greeks in the Morea revolted against Ottoman sovereignty, triggering the start of their war for independence. A Romanian uprising also occurred at the same time. Sultan Mahmud initially called on the governor of Egypt for help, and the Ottomans were temporarily able to regain control until an alliance of Britain, France, and Russia rooted the Ottoman-Egyptian coalition at the Bay of Navarino in October of 1827. Mahmud reacted by declaring war on Russia as the dispute with Greece continued.
Another Russo-Turkish war waged on from 1828 through 1829, and the following year, the Ottoman Empire was forced to acknowledge Greek independence. In 1831, the governor of Egypt, Muhammad Ali Pasha, confronted Sultan Mahmud about a promise made earlier, in which Mahmud agreed to make Ali the governor of Syria and Tarsus. Mahmud refused to follow through, and Ali reacted by sending troops under the command of his son, Ibrahim Pasha, to seize Damascus, Aleppo, and Konya, then march towards Constantinople.
Sultan Mahmud, who had previously sacked the entire Janissary corps in 1826, now had to seek aid from foreign powers. He first appealed to the British, who declined due to France’s support of the Egyptians. Mahmud then turned to Russia, which agreed to an alliance. Still, the Egyptians routed the Ottoman forces at Nizip in June 1839. Around the same time, Sultan Mahmud began the Tanzimat reform era, which aimed to modernize and Europeanize Turkey. However, before he could see the results of these changes, Mahmud II died of tuberculosis in the summer of 1839.
Abdul Mejid I replaced Mahmud as the new sultan and continued the increasing reforms within the empire. The year after the new young sultan took the throne, the Oriental Crisis of 1840 occurred during the ongoing Egyptian-Ottoman war, and the entirety of the Ottoman naval forces defected to Muhammad Ali and the Egyptian cause. France was ready to back the Egyptians, but Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia came to the Ottoman sultan’s aid. The European powers then established the Convention of London in July 1840, promising the Egyptians territory in Sudan under the condition that those lands remain part of the Ottoman Empire. Though mostly a formality, Muhammad Ali was hesitant to accept the deal and turned to the French for support against it. However, his former allies switched sides in October of that year, triggering a military response against the Egyptians from the Ottomans and Europeans.
Finally, Muhammad Ali agreed to his opponents’ terms in November, giving up Syria, Adana, Crete, the Hijaz, and the Holy Land, in addition to handing the Ottoman naval forces back over to Sultan Abdul Mejid. In 1853, the Ottoman Empire entered the Crimean War, yet another conflict with Russia. One of the main factors leading to the discord was further dispute surrounding the Russians’ role as protectors of Orthodox Christianity in Ottoman vassal states. Britain and France quickly backed the Turks, fearing the growing power of the Russians, while Austria aligned once again with Russia. Eventually, Austria threatened to switch sides and back the Ottoman cause, forcing Russia to accept peace terms resulting in the Treaty of Paris on March 30, 1856.
Just before the conclusion of the war, Sultan Abdul Mejid issued the Hatt-i Humayun, which established that all classes and ethnicities would be treated equally in all matters within the empire. In 1861, the Ottoman sultan was pressured by European powers into recognizing Lebanese autonomy and died shortly after from tuberculosis. Abdul Aziz became the next sultan of the Ottoman Empire after the death of his brother. Sultan Abdul Aziz continued the reforms and westernization initiated by Abdul Mejid, taking significant advice from France on the establishment of a council of state and public education system. The empire’s first civil code was also promulgated during his reign.
As tensions and rebellions rose in the Balkans, the Ottomans once again became dissatisfied with Russia, this time due to its support of revolts from the Balkan states. The Russo-Turkish War of 1877 to 1878 broke out, with Russia leading a coalition of Romanian, Bulgarian, Serbian, and Montenegrin troops. The conflict proved disastrous for the Ottoman Empire, ending in a decisive victory for Russia and its allies, leading to the formal declaration of independence from Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro, the establishment of the Principality of Bulgaria, Austria-Hungary’s occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Britain’s seizure of Cyprus, all confirmed by the Congress of Berlin in 1878.
Furthermore, just before the main portion of the war erupted, Sultan Abdul Aziz had actually been dethroned by his own ministers due to frustrations within the empire. This meant that Sultan Abdul Hamid II would be responsible for handling the resolution of the Balkan unrest. Initially, Murad V took the throne in Abdul Aziz’s place, but he was deposed after 93 days due to accusations of being mentally ill and unfit for the job. One of Sultan Abdul Hamid’s initial actions was to promulgate the first Ottoman constitution in 1876, although it only lasted for two years before the sultan suspended it in 1878.
Over the next few years, France extended its reach into Tunisia, and Britain came to power in Egypt in 1882, prompting the Ottomans to look toward Germany for friendship. Around this time, the Greco-Turkish War was sparked in 1897 by disagreements between the Ottomans and Greeks regarding whether Crete should remain under Ottoman control or unite with Greece. Germany, Austria-Hungary, France, Italy, Russia, and Britain all backed the Ottomans and wished to maintain peace in Crete. The war was short-lived and resulted in a defeat for Greece, which was forced to pay heavy reparations and allow Crete to remain an autonomous state under Ottoman sovereignty. Although Sultan Abdul Hamid II and his forces were victorious against the Greeks, the issue would continue into the next century.
Additionally, unrest in the Balkans was far from over as the 1800s came to a close. Problems with Armenia and its neighbors began in the 1890s and only grew with time as the Ottoman Empire was pushed more and more towards urgent defense over its dwindling power and territory—a decline that would only worsen in the years to come.
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This version maintains the content while removing any potentially sensitive or inappropriate language.
Ottoman – Relating to the Ottoman Empire, a historical empire founded at the end of the 13th century in northwestern Anatolia by the Turkish tribal leader Osman. – The Ottoman influence on European politics was significant during the 16th and 17th centuries.
Empire – A group of nations or peoples ruled over by an emperor, empress, or other powerful sovereign or government. – The Roman Empire is often studied for its extensive governance and cultural influence across Europe and the Mediterranean.
Reforms – Changes made to improve a system, organization, or practice, often in a political or social context. – The Tanzimat reforms in the Ottoman Empire aimed to modernize the state and secure its territorial integrity against nationalist movements and European powers.
Wars – Conflicts between different nations or states or different groups within a nation or state. – The Napoleonic Wars reshaped the political landscape of Europe in the early 19th century.
Alliances – Formal agreements or treaties between two or more nations to cooperate for specific purposes. – The Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente were two major alliances that played crucial roles in the events leading up to World War I.
Decline – The process of becoming weaker or less successful. – The decline of the Byzantine Empire was hastened by internal strife and external pressures from emerging powers like the Ottomans.
Independence – The state of being free from outside control; not subject to another’s authority. – The American colonies declared their independence from British rule in 1776, leading to the Revolutionary War.
Europe – A continent located entirely in the Northern Hemisphere and mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere, known for its historical significance in global affairs. – The Renaissance was a period of great cultural and intellectual growth in Europe, marking the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity.
Territory – An area of land under the jurisdiction of a ruler or state. – The Louisiana Purchase significantly expanded the territory of the United States in the early 19th century.
Modernization – The process of adapting something to modern needs or habits, typically involving the adoption of new technologies or ideas. – Japan’s Meiji Restoration was a period of rapid modernization that transformed the country into a major world power by the early 20th century.
