The Iberian Peninsula is home to two historic colonial powers: Spain and Portugal. These nations have stood side by side for centuries, each maintaining its sovereignty. But why didn’t Spain, the larger of the two, ever fully absorb Portugal? Interestingly, there was a time when this nearly happened, but not in the way you might expect.
For a while, monarchs across the Iberian Peninsula entertained the idea of uniting their kingdoms, hoping to recreate the powerful Visigoth kingdom of old. This ambition was shared by both Spanish and Portuguese leaders. Diplomatic marriages were arranged to bring the crowns of Portugal, León, Castile, and Aragon together. For instance, Miguel de Paz aimed to inherit these crowns, and Alfonso of Portugal was set to marry the daughter of Spanish rulers Isabella and Ferdinand. However, Alfonso’s untimely death altered these plans.
In 1578, King Sebastian I of Portugal died in the Battle of Alcácer Quibir against Morocco, leaving no heir. His granduncle, Cardinal Henry, took the throne but ruled for only two years before passing away. This left the throne open to claims from three grandchildren of King Manuel I: Infanta Catarina, Philip II of Spain, and Antonio, Prior of Crato. Antonio was crowned in 1580, but some Portuguese supported Philip and fled to Spain.
With support from parts of the Portuguese council, Philip II invaded Portugal, defeating Antonio’s supporters at the Battle of Alcântara. He was soon declared the king of Portugal, uniting the crowns under the House of Habsburg. However, Philip returned to Madrid after two years, appointing his nephew, Albert of Austria, as viceroy in Lisbon. The Habsburgs aimed to maintain Portugal’s autonomy, with Madrid acting as a supervisory body.
Before the union, Portugal had its own colonial empire, allies, and enemies. Under Spanish rule, Portugal’s enemies became Spain’s enemies, straining relations with former allies like England and inviting attacks from the French and Dutch. Philip II’s death in 1598 increased Portuguese concerns about their status under Spanish rule.
Philip III, who succeeded his father, favored Spain and imposed higher taxes on the Portuguese to fund Spanish expenses, angering Portuguese merchants. Portuguese nobles who initially supported the union felt alienated as Spanish officials replaced them in the governing council. The expectation for Portugal to share in Spain’s military and financial burdens further strained relations.
As Spain became embroiled in the Thirty Years’ War and the Catalan Revolt, Portugal saw an opportunity to reclaim its independence. In December 1640, a group of Portuguese nationalists, known as the 40 Conspirators, led by figures like António Vieira and Miguel de Almeida, launched a revolution. They captured the viceroy and crowned John, Duke of Braganza, as the new king of Portugal, declaring the nation’s sovereignty.
The Portuguese Restoration War lasted until the Treaty of Lisbon in 1668, which recognized Portugal’s independence. The war featured numerous skirmishes and significant battles, with Portugal achieving several victories. Spain, already stretched thin by other conflicts, could not effectively counter the Portuguese uprising.
The failure of the Iberian Union can be attributed to several factors. The Portuguese were frustrated with the Habsburg monarchy’s inability to uphold promises of autonomy. The pressure to align with Spain, coupled with the replacement of Portuguese officials with Spaniards, contradicted the idea of autonomy. Additionally, losing Portuguese allies and being expected to defend Spanish interests overseas created significant resentment.
Ultimately, the Habsburgs’ favoritism toward Spain made the Portuguese feel more like subjects than partners. Had the kings fostered a more equitable relationship, the union might have endured. However, these grievances, combined with external pressures, led to the dissolution of the Iberian Union.
Engage in a class debate where you will be divided into two groups. One group will argue in favor of the Iberian Union, highlighting potential benefits and successes, while the other group will argue against it, focusing on the reasons for its failure. Use historical evidence from the article to support your arguments.
Participate in a role-playing activity where you will take on the roles of the 40 Conspirators who led the Portuguese revolution. Discuss and plan your strategy to reclaim Portugal’s independence, considering the historical context and challenges faced during the Portuguese Restoration War.
Analyze historical maps of the Iberian Peninsula and its colonies during the period of the Iberian Union. Identify key territories and discuss how the union impacted colonial relations and conflicts with other European powers. Present your findings to the class.
Write a creative letter from the perspective of a Portuguese noble during the Iberian Union. Express your concerns and frustrations about the union, the imposition of Spanish officials, and the impact on Portugal’s autonomy. Share your letter with the class and discuss the sentiments expressed.
Conduct a research project on the long-term effects of the Iberian Union on both Spain and Portugal. Investigate how the union influenced their political, economic, and cultural landscapes. Present your research in a multimedia presentation, highlighting key findings and historical significance.
The Iberian Peninsula is home to two once-powerful colonial empires that have survived as strong and sovereign nations side by side for many centuries. Many wonder how this happened, particularly how Spain never managed to take over its smaller neighbor, Portugal, which is situated between Spain and the North Atlantic Ocean. In reality, this almost occurred at one point, though not in the way most may have expected.
For some time, the monarchs across the Iberian Peninsula were in favor of uniting the kingdoms, hoping to revive the once-powerful Visigoth kingdom. This idea was supported not only by Spanish leaders but also by the Portuguese. Kings such as Miguel de Paz sought to inherit the crowns of Portugal, León, Castile, and Aragon through diplomatic marriages. Alfonso of Portugal was even set to marry the daughter of the de facto Spanish monarchs, Isabella and Ferdinand, but his unexpected death changed the course of events.
In 1578, King Sebastian I of Portugal was slain at the Battle of Alcácer Quibir against the Sultanate of Morocco, leaving the Portuguese throne without an heir. His granduncle, Cardinal Henry, filled the void but ruled for only two years before his own death. This opened the throne to claims from three grandchildren of King Manuel I, including Infanta Catarina, Philip II of Spain, and Antonio, Prior of Crato. Ultimately, Antonio was chosen and crowned in 1580, but some supported Philip instead and left for Spain.
With the backing of several members of the Portuguese council, Philip decided to invade Portugal, defeating Antonio’s supporters at the Battle of Alcântara. He was soon proclaimed the new king of Portugal, uniting the crowns of the Iberian Peninsula under the House of Habsburg. However, after two years, Philip returned to Madrid, leaving his nephew, Albert of Austria, as viceroy in Lisbon. The Habsburg monarchs aimed to maintain autonomy for Portugal, viewing the Madrid government as a supervisory body.
Prior to the union, Portugal was an expanding colonial empire with its own set of allies and enemies. However, after coming under Spanish rule, Portugal’s enemies became Spain’s enemies, leading to strained relations with former allies like England, as well as attacks from the French and Dutch on Portuguese colonial interests. The death of Philip II in 1598 heightened Portuguese concerns about their status under Spanish rule.
Philip III, who succeeded his father, favored Spain and raised taxes on the Portuguese to support Spanish expenses, which displeased Portuguese merchants. Many Portuguese nobles who had initially supported the union began to feel alienated as Spanish officials replaced Portuguese members in the governing council. The expectation for Portugal to share in the financial and military responsibilities of Spanish wars further strained relations.
As the Spanish were preoccupied with the Thirty Years’ War and the Catalan Revolt, the Portuguese saw an opportunity to assert their independence. In December 1640, a group of Portuguese nationalists, known as the 40 Conspirators, led by figures like António Vieira and Miguel de Almeida, initiated a revolution. They captured the viceroy and crowned John, Duke of Braganza, as the new king of Portugal, declaring the country’s sovereignty.
The ensuing Portuguese Restoration War lasted until the signing of the Treaty of Lisbon in 1668, which recognized Portugal’s independence. The war consisted of numerous skirmishes and significant battles, with Portugal achieving several victories. Spain, already stretched thin by other conflicts, could not effectively respond to the Portuguese uprising.
The failure of the Iberian Union can be attributed to several factors, primarily the Portuguese grievances regarding the Habsburg monarchy’s failure to uphold promises of autonomy. The pressure for Portugal to act in unity with Spain, coupled with the replacement of Portuguese officials with Spaniards, contradicted the notion of autonomy. Additionally, the loss of Portuguese allies and the expectation for Portugal to defend Spanish interests overseas created significant resentment.
Ultimately, the Habsburg monarchs’ favoritism toward Spain led the Portuguese to feel more like subjects of Spain rather than partners in a union. Had the kings fostered a more equitable relationship, the union might have lasted longer. However, the combination of these grievances and the external pressures faced by Portugal ultimately led to the dissolution of the Iberian Union.
Iberian – Relating to the Iberian Peninsula, which includes the countries of Spain and Portugal – The Iberian Peninsula has been a significant crossroads of cultures and civilizations throughout history.
Union – The act of joining together or the state of being joined together, especially in a political context – The union of the crowns of Castile and Aragon in 1469 was a pivotal moment in the formation of modern Spain.
Portugal – A country located on the Iberian Peninsula, known for its maritime history and exploration during the Age of Discovery – Portugal’s explorers, such as Vasco da Gama, played a crucial role in establishing sea routes to India in the 15th century.
Spain – A country on the Iberian Peninsula, known for its historical empire and cultural influence – Spain’s Golden Age was marked by a flourishing of arts and literature, as well as significant territorial expansion.
Autonomy – The right or condition of self-government, especially in a particular territory or state – The Basque Country in Spain has sought greater autonomy to preserve its unique cultural identity.
Monarchy – A form of government with a monarch at the head, such as a king or queen – The British monarchy has undergone significant changes in its role and influence over the centuries.
Independence – The state of being free from outside control or not subject to another’s authority – The American colonies declared their independence from British rule in 1776, leading to the Revolutionary War.
Restoration – The return of a hereditary monarch to a throne, a head of state to government, or a regime to power – The Restoration of the English monarchy in 1660 marked the return of Charles II to the throne after a period of republican rule.
War – A state of armed conflict between different countries or different groups within a country – The Thirty Years’ War was a devastating conflict that reshaped the political and religious landscape of Europe in the 17th century.
Sovereignty – The authority of a state to govern itself or another state – The Treaty of Westphalia in 1648 is often cited as the beginning of the modern international system of sovereign states.
