Zumbi – The Last King Of Palmares
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The History of Palmares
During the 1600s, an expansive autonomous settlement known as Palmares reached its peak in northeastern Brazil. Founded and led by people escaping from slavery, also known as maroons, Palmares was one of the world’s largest maroon communities with a population exceeding 10,000. Its citizens were in constant conflict with colonial forces. The records we have about Palmares mainly come from biased Dutch and Portuguese sources, but historians have managed to piece much of its story together.
Origins of Palmares
During the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, which began in the 1500s, nearly half of all enslaved African people were sent to Portugal’s American colony: Brazil. Some escaped and sought shelter in Brazil’s interior regions, where they formed settlements called mocambos or quilombos. Fugitives from slavery probably arrived in the northeast in the late 1500s. By the 1660s, their camps had consolidated into a powerful confederation known today as the Quilombo of Palmares.
Life in Palmares
Palmares consisted of a central capital linking dozens of villages, which specialized in particular agricultural goods or served as military training grounds. Citizens of Palmares, or Palmaristas, were governed by a king and defended by an organized military. African people and Brazilian-born Black and Indigenous people all came seeking refuge. They collectively fished, hunted, raised livestock, planted orchards, and grew crops like cassava, corn, and sugarcane. They also made use of the abundant palm trees for which Palmares was named, turning palm products into butter, wine, and light. Palmaristas crafted palm husks into pipes and leaves into mats and baskets. They traded some of these goods with Portuguese settlers for products like gunpowder and salt. In turn, settlers avoided Palmares’ raids during which they’d seize weapons and take captives.
Conflict with the Portuguese
The Portuguese were concerned with other invading imperialists but regarded Indigenous uprisings and Palmaristas as their internal threats. Palmares endangered the very institution of slavery—the foundation of Brazil’s economy. During the 1670s, the Portuguese escalated their attacks. By this time, Ganga-Zumba was Palmares’ leader. He ruled from the Macaco, which functioned as the capital. His allies and family members governed the other villages—with women playing crucial roles in operation and defense. As they fought the Portuguese, Palmaristas used the landscape to their advantage. Camouflaged and built in high places, their mocambos offered superior lookouts. They constructed hidden ditches lined with sharp stakes that swallowed unsuspecting soldiers and false roads that led to ambushes. They launched counterattacks under the cover of night and were constantly abandoning and building settlements to elude the Portuguese.
The End of Palmares
In 1678, after years of failed attacks, the Portuguese offered to negotiate a peace treaty with Ganga-Zumba. The terms they agreed upon recognized Palmares’ independence and the freedom of anyone born there. However, the treaty demanded that Palmares pledge loyalty to the crown and return all past and future fugitives from slavery. Many Palmaristas dissented, among them Zumbi— Ganga-Zumba’s nephew— a rising leader himself. Before long, Ganga-Zumba was killed, likely by a group affiliated with his nephew. As Palmares’ new leader, Zumbi rejected the treaty and resumed resistance for another 15 years. But in February of 1694, the Portuguese captured the capital after a devastating siege. Zumbi escaped, but they eventually found and ambushed him. And on November 20th, 1695, Portuguese forces killed Zumbi. His death was not the end of Palmares, but it was a crushing blow. After years of warfare, there were far fewer rebels in the area. Those who remained rallied around new leaders and maintained a presence, however small, through the 1760s.
Legacy of Palmares
Though Palmares is no more, thousands of other quilombos persist to this day. November 20th, the day of Zumbi’s death, is celebrated across Brazil as the Day of Black Consciousness. But Zumbi was just one of many Palmaristas. We only know some of their names, but their fight for freedom echoes centuries later.
Discussion Questions
- How does the history of Palmares challenge traditional narratives of slavery and resistance?
- What do you think were the key factors that allowed Palmares to thrive and become one of the largest maroon communities in the world?
- In what ways did the citizens of Palmares demonstrate self-sufficiency and resilience in their daily lives?
- Why do you think the Portuguese considered Palmares a significant threat to the institution of slavery and the economy?
- What can we learn from the tactics and strategies employed by Palmaristas in their resistance against the Portuguese?
- What were the consequences of the peace treaty negotiations between Ganga-Zumba and the Portuguese for the future of Palmares?
- How did the legacy of Palmares continue to inspire and empower future generations in Brazil and beyond?
- What parallels can be drawn between the experiences of Palmaristas and other marginalized communities fighting for autonomy and liberation today?
Lesson Vocabulary
Autonomous settlement – A self-governing community established by a group of people who have chosen to live independently and manage their own affairs. – The Maroon community in Jamaica is an example of an autonomous settlement where they have their own laws and governing structure.
Maroons – Enslaved Africans who escaped from plantations and formed independent communities in the Americas. – The Maroons in Suriname were known for their successful resistance against the Dutch colonial forces.
Colonial forces – Military or governmental groups representing a colonial power that exert control over a colonized territory. – The colonial forces of France were involved in suppressing the resistance movements of the Algerian independence fighters.
Trans-Atlantic slave trade – The forced transportation of enslaved Africans across the Atlantic Ocean to the Americas between the 16th and 19th centuries. – The Trans-Atlantic slave trade had a devastating impact on African societies and resulted in the enslavement of millions of people.
Mocambos – Hidden or remote settlements established by escaped slaves in Brazil during the colonial period. – The mocambos provided refuge for escaped slaves who sought to build their own communities away from the plantations.
Quilombos – Independent communities of escaped slaves in Brazil that were formed as a result of resistance against slavery. – The most famous quilombo was Quilombo dos Palmares, which lasted for several decades and became a symbol of resistance against slavery in Brazil.
Palmaristas – Members or supporters of the Palmares, a powerful quilombo in Brazil that fought against Portuguese colonial forces. – The Palmaristas defended their community fiercely and were known for their successful resistance against the Portuguese.
Portuguese – Relating to or from Portugal, or the people, language, or culture of Portugal. – The Portuguese were one of the major European powers involved in the colonization and slave trade in Africa and the Americas.
Ganga-Zumba – The first recognized leader of Quilombo dos Palmares, who signed a peace treaty with the Portuguese in 1678. – Ganga-Zumba played a crucial role in negotiating the peace treaty with the Portuguese, which allowed Palmares to exist as a semi-autonomous community for a period of time.
Resistance – The act of opposing or fighting against something, often in the context of social, political, or cultural oppression. – The resistance movements of enslaved Africans and their descendants played a significant role in challenging and undermining the institution of slavery.
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- Categories: Geography, Grade 7, Grade 8, Grade 9, History, Sociology, TED Ed, Video Lessons
- Keywords: autonomous settlement, colonial forces, Ganga-Zumba, maroons, mocambos, Palmaristas, Portuguese, quilombos, resistance, Trans-Atlantic slave trade