During the 1600s, an expansive autonomous settlement known as Palmares reached its peak in northeastern Brazil. Founded and led by people escaping from slavery, also known as maroons, Palmares was one of the world’s largest maroon communities with a population exceeding 10,000. Its citizens were in constant conflict with colonial forces. The records we have about Palmares mainly come from biased Dutch and Portuguese sources, but historians have managed to piece much of its story together.
During the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, which began in the 1500s, nearly half of all enslaved African people were sent to Portugal’s American colony: Brazil. Some escaped and sought shelter in Brazil’s interior regions, where they formed settlements called mocambos or quilombos. Fugitives from slavery probably arrived in the northeast in the late 1500s. By the 1660s, their camps had consolidated into a powerful confederation known today as the Quilombo of Palmares.
Palmares consisted of a central capital linking dozens of villages, which specialized in particular agricultural goods or served as military training grounds. Citizens of Palmares, or Palmaristas, were governed by a king and defended by an organized military. African people and Brazilian-born Black and Indigenous people all came seeking refuge. They collectively fished, hunted, raised livestock, planted orchards, and grew crops like cassava, corn, and sugarcane. They also made use of the abundant palm trees for which Palmares was named, turning palm products into butter, wine, and light. Palmaristas crafted palm husks into pipes and leaves into mats and baskets. They traded some of these goods with Portuguese settlers for products like gunpowder and salt. In turn, settlers avoided Palmares’ raids during which they’d seize weapons and take captives.
The Portuguese were concerned with other invading imperialists but regarded Indigenous uprisings and Palmaristas as their internal threats. Palmares endangered the very institution of slavery—the foundation of Brazil’s economy. During the 1670s, the Portuguese escalated their attacks. By this time, Ganga-Zumba was Palmares’ leader. He ruled from the Macaco, which functioned as the capital. His allies and family members governed the other villages—with women playing crucial roles in operation and defense. As they fought the Portuguese, Palmaristas used the landscape to their advantage. Camouflaged and built in high places, their mocambos offered superior lookouts. They constructed hidden ditches lined with sharp stakes that swallowed unsuspecting soldiers and false roads that led to ambushes. They launched counterattacks under the cover of night and were constantly abandoning and building settlements to elude the Portuguese.
In 1678, after years of failed attacks, the Portuguese offered to negotiate a peace treaty with Ganga-Zumba. The terms they agreed upon recognized Palmares’ independence and the freedom of anyone born there. However, the treaty demanded that Palmares pledge loyalty to the crown and return all past and future fugitives from slavery. Many Palmaristas dissented, among them Zumbi— Ganga-Zumba’s nephew— a rising leader himself. Before long, Ganga-Zumba was killed, likely by a group affiliated with his nephew. As Palmares’ new leader, Zumbi rejected the treaty and resumed resistance for another 15 years. But in February of 1694, the Portuguese captured the capital after a devastating siege. Zumbi escaped, but they eventually found and ambushed him. And on November 20th, 1695, Portuguese forces killed Zumbi. His death was not the end of Palmares, but it was a crushing blow. After years of warfare, there were far fewer rebels in the area. Those who remained rallied around new leaders and maintained a presence, however small, through the 1760s.
Though Palmares is no more, thousands of other quilombos persist to this day. November 20th, the day of Zumbi’s death, is celebrated across Brazil as the Day of Black Consciousness. But Zumbi was just one of many Palmaristas. We only know some of their names, but their fight for freedom echoes centuries later.
Research the key events in the history of Palmares and create a detailed timeline. Include important dates, such as the founding of Palmares, significant battles, and the death of Zumbi. Use images and short descriptions to make your timeline visually appealing and informative.
Divide into groups and role-play a debate between the Portuguese colonizers and the Palmaristas. Each group should research their side’s perspective and prepare arguments. Discuss the peace treaty of 1678 and whether it was fair or not. Present your arguments to the class and engage in a respectful debate.
Using a blank map of Brazil, mark the location of Palmares and other significant sites mentioned in the article. Label the central capital, Macaco, and the various villages. Illustrate the geographical features that helped the Palmaristas defend their settlements, such as high places and hidden ditches.
Write a diary entry from the perspective of a Palmarista living in Palmares. Describe your daily life, the challenges you face, and your feelings about the ongoing conflict with the Portuguese. Use historical details from the article to make your entry realistic and engaging.
Create a piece of art or a craft inspired by Palmares. This could be a drawing of the settlement, a model of a mocambo, or a craft using materials similar to those the Palmaristas used, such as palm leaves. Present your artwork to the class and explain its significance and how it relates to the history of Palmares.
Autonomous settlement – A self-governing community established by a group of people who have chosen to live independently and manage their own affairs. – The Maroon community in Jamaica is an example of an autonomous settlement where they have their own laws and governing structure.
Maroons – Enslaved Africans who escaped from plantations and formed independent communities in the Americas. – The Maroons in Suriname were known for their successful resistance against the Dutch colonial forces.
Colonial forces – Military or governmental groups representing a colonial power that exert control over a colonized territory. – The colonial forces of France were involved in suppressing the resistance movements of the Algerian independence fighters.
Trans-Atlantic slave trade – The forced transportation of enslaved Africans across the Atlantic Ocean to the Americas between the 16th and 19th centuries. – The Trans-Atlantic slave trade had a devastating impact on African societies and resulted in the enslavement of millions of people.
Mocambos – Hidden or remote settlements established by escaped slaves in Brazil during the colonial period. – The mocambos provided refuge for escaped slaves who sought to build their own communities away from the plantations.
Quilombos – Independent communities of escaped slaves in Brazil that were formed as a result of resistance against slavery. – The most famous quilombo was Quilombo dos Palmares, which lasted for several decades and became a symbol of resistance against slavery in Brazil.
Palmaristas – Members or supporters of the Palmares, a powerful quilombo in Brazil that fought against Portuguese colonial forces. – The Palmaristas defended their community fiercely and were known for their successful resistance against the Portuguese.
Portuguese – Relating to or from Portugal, or the people, language, or culture of Portugal. – The Portuguese were one of the major European powers involved in the colonization and slave trade in Africa and the Americas.
Ganga-Zumba – The first recognized leader of Quilombo dos Palmares, who signed a peace treaty with the Portuguese in 1678. – Ganga-Zumba played a crucial role in negotiating the peace treaty with the Portuguese, which allowed Palmares to exist as a semi-autonomous community for a period of time.
Resistance – The act of opposing or fighting against something, often in the context of social, political, or cultural oppression. – The resistance movements of enslaved Africans and their descendants played a significant role in challenging and undermining the institution of slavery.
